Basa (Premium Frozen White Fish Filet) ,
Purpose
The Boneless Fish was initially intended to feed three groups: the elderly, hospital patients, and schoolchildren. It differs from an ordinary frozen fish fillet, as the Boneless Fish looks just like a dressed fish. It is also cooked in the same manner as an ordinary fish.
Dairei began to market it to families in 2002. Aside from being easy to prepare, cooking boneless fish at home generates very little amount of waste.
Production
The production of the Boneless Fish is labor intensive. Dairei set up HACCP-certified factories in Thailand, China and Vietnam. The workers cut open the fish and use a pair of tweezers to remove the bones. The end product is then examined to make sure that it is free of bones and then “glued” together using a food-grade enzyme produced by Ajinomoto.
This binding agent is a transglutaminase (product name: Activa TG-B) which is separated from a culture of Streptoverticillium mobaraense. It works by binding the collagen in the fish tissue. At temperatures under 5C, it may take several hours for the enzyme to do its job properly.
Similar products
The success of Boneless Fish inspired another technology-intensive product, “Fish with Delicious Bones” (; honemade oishii sakana), on sale since 2004. The fish, in the form of a butterfly fillet, is prepared by a patent pending process that uses heat and pressure to tenderize fish bones. It is said the entire fish, including the head and fins, becomes completely edible, much like what happens to canned sardines. It is a joint invention of Maruha Corporation () and Miyajima Soysauce Corporation () , arowana fish .
Another, chimeral, product is the “Cold Set Bound Fish Kebabs” made from alternating layers of salmon and cod which are “glued” together by transglutaminase , dried fish .
External links
Boneless Fish Q & A in Japanese
“Boneless fresh fish gains popularity”, December 17, 2002
Fish with Delicious Bones at Maruha Corporation and Miyajima Soysauce Corporation in Japanese
Boneless Fish: A debate ( ; in Japanese)
Ajinomoto: Enzyme for Binder and Texture improver
Ajinomoto enzyme catalog in Japanese
U.S. Patent 5,156,956 — A transglutaminase catalyzing an acyl transfer reaction of a -carboxyamide group of a glutamine residue in a peptide or protein chain in the absence of Cz2+ by Ajinomoto
U.S. Patent 5,658,605 — Process for producing bound-formed food by Ajinomoto
U.S. Patent 5,968,568 — Enzyme preparation for use in the binding of food materials and process for producing bound food by Ajinomoto
Innovation Product Library see page 18, “Cold Set Bound Fish Kebabs”
Categories: Japanese brand foods | Patented foods | Seafood
Archive for September, 2009
Boneless Fish
Sunday, September 27th, 2009Frozen food
Sunday, September 27th, 2009
Frozen Mackerel (Scomberomorus) ,
Process
Freezing only slows the deterioration of food and while it may stop the growth of micro-organisms, it does not necessarily kill them. Many enzyme reactions are only slowed by freezing. Therefore it is common to stop enzyme activity before freezing, either by blanching or by adding chemicals.
Foods may be preserved for several months by freezing. Long-term freezing requires a constant temperature of -18 degrees Celsius (0 degrees Fahrenheit) or less. Some freezers cannot achieve such a low temperature. The time food can be kept in the freezer is reduced considerably if the temperature in a freezer fluctuates. Fluctuations could occur by a small gap in the freezer door or adding a large amount of unfrozen food.
Quick-freezing
American inventor Clarence Birdseye, who developed the quick-freezing process of food preservation in the early 20th century, is considered the father of the frozen-food industry.
The food industry uses a technique called flash freezing, an application of supercooling, to quickly freeze food items. In this case, water contained inside the food is subjected to temperatures well below its melting/freezing point (273 K or 0C). This causes the water inside the foods to freeze.
Traditional and other us , fish aquatic .
Many Arctic communities would preserve food in holes or larders dug into the ice. There is a tradition in Scandinavia of preserving fish and especially herrings in this way , hake fish .
Cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries.
Seeds are stored in freezers at 18 C or below in seedbanks. The seeds are stored as a source for planting in case seed reserves elsewhere should be destroyed. The seeds stored may be those of food crops or rare species.
An increasingly popular form of home cooking involves preparing a month of meals to store in the home freezer. Once-a-month cooking helps cooks save money by purchasing grocery items in bulk and save time by cutting preparation time down considerably.
See also
Shelf life
TV Dinner
External links
Recommended times for refrigerator and freezer food storage
Freezing Food Links
Frozen Food Reviews
Categories: Food preservation | Food storage
Clarence Birdseye
Sunday, September 27th, 2009
Shark Cartilage, Gymnema, Tri-san ,
Early life
Birdseye’s double belt freezer (US Patent #1,773,079)
Birdseye was born in Brooklyn in New York City. He became interested in food preservation by freezing while working as a field naturalist for the United States government in Labrador, Canada, between 1912-1915. He was working to pay for his education as a biology major at Amherst College. He was taught by the Inuit how to ice fish under very thick ice. In -40C weather, he discovered that the fish he caught froze almost instantly, and when thawed, tasted fresh. He knew immediately that the frozen seafood sold in New York was of lower quality than the frozen fish of Labrador.
Conventional freezing methods of the time were commonly done at higher temperatures, and thus the freezing occurred much more slowly, giving ice crystals more time to grow. It is now known that fast freezing produces smaller ice crystals, which cause less damage to the tissue structure.
In 1922 Birdseye conducted fish-freezing experiments at the Clothel Refrigerating Company, then established his own company, Birdseye Seafoods Inc., to freeze fish fillets via chilled air at -45F (-43C). In 1924 his company went bankrupt due to lack of consumer interest in the product. That same year he developed an entirely new process for commercially viable quick-freezing: pack fish in cartons, then freeze the contents between two refrigerated surfaces under pressure. Birdseye created a new company, General Seafood Corporation, to promote this method.
Industrial development
In 1925 his General Seafood Corporation moved to Gloucester, Massachusetts. There it employed Birdseye’s newest invention, the double belt freezer, in which cold brine chilled a pair of stainless steel belts carrying packaged fish, freezing the fish quickly. His invention subsequently issued as US Patent #1,773,079, marking the beginning of today’s frozen foods industry. Birdseye then took out patents on machinery which cooled more quickly so that only small ice crystals can form and cell walls are not damaged. In 1927 he began to extend the process to quick-freezing of meat, poultry, fruit, and vegetables , hake fish .
In 1929, Birdseye sold his company and patents for $22 million to Goldman Sachs and the Postum Company, which eventually became General Foods Corporation, and which founded the Birds Eye Frosted Food Company. Birdseye continued to work with the company, developing frozen food technology. In 1930 the company began sales experiments in 18 retail stores around Springfield, Massachusetts to test consumer acceptance of quick-frozen foods. The initial product line featured 26 items, including 18 cuts of frozen meat, spinach and peas, a variety of fruits and berries, blue point oysters, and fish fillets. Consumer acceptance was strong, and today this experiment is considered the birth of retail frozen foods. The “Birds Eye” name remains a leading frozen-food brand , frozen fresh fish .
Death
He died on October 7, 1956 of a heart attack at the Gramercy Park Hotel. He was 69 years old.
References
^ “Clarence Birdseye Is Dead at 69. Inventor of Frozen-Food Process. Developed Method for Quick Freezing and Also Devised System for Dehydrating.”. New York Times. October 9, 1956. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60F10FC3D5E147B93CBA9178BD95F428585F9. Retrieved on 2008-07-16. “Clarence Birdseye, the inventor of a process for quickfreezing foods that made his name a household word in the United States, died Sunday night of a heart ailment in his residence at the Gramercy Park Hotel. He was 69 years old.”
Further reading
“Clarence Birdseye.” Food Engineering. September 2003. p. 66.
About.com biography
External links
Food portal
Clarence Birdseye biography at Birds Eye Foods web site
List of IFT Award winners
Categories: 1886 births | 1956 deaths | American food engineers | American food scientists | American inventors | People from New York City | Amherst College alumni | Food preservation | Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
1840s in fashion
Sunday, September 27th, 2009
C/T Denim Fabric ,
Women’s fashion
Gowns
Princess di Sant’ Antimo’s evening gown of watered silk shows the short sleeves, lace flounce collar, and long pointed waist of the early 1840s. The tiny pleats that gather her skirt can be seen at the waistline. 1840-44.
Shoulders became narrow and sloping, waists became low and pointed, and sleeve detail migrated from the elbow to the wrists. Where pleated fabric panels had wrapped the bust and shoulders in the previous decade, they now formed a triangle from the shoulder to the waist of day dresses.
Skirts evolved from a conical shape to a bell shape, aided by a new method of attaching the skirts to the bodice using organ or cartridge pleats which cause the skirt to spring out from the waist. Full skirts were achieved mainly through layers of petticoats. The increasing weight and inconvenience of the layers of starched petticoats would lead to the development of the crinoline of the second half of the 1850s , printed fleece fabric .
Sleeves were narrower and fullness dropped from just below the shoulder at the beginning of the decade to the lower arm, leading toward the flared pagoda sleeves of the 1850s and 1860s , white curtain fabric .
Evening gowns were worn off the shoulder and featured wide flounces that reached to the elbow, often of lace. They were worn with sheer shawls an opera-length gloves.
Another accessory was a small bag. At home bags were often white satin and embroidered or painted. Outdoor bags were often green or white and tasseled. There were also crocheted linen bags.
Shoes were made from the same materials as handbags. There were slippers of crocheted linen and bright colored brocade satin slippers that tied around the ankle with silk ribbon.
Hairstyles and headgear
Hairstyle of 1840
1848 fashion plate shows bonnets and winter-wear.
The wide hairstyles of the previous decade gave way to fashions which kept the hair closer to the head, and the high bun or knot on the crown descended to the back of the head. Hair was still generally parted in the center. Isolated long curls dangling down towards the front (sometimes called “spaniel curls”) were worn, often without much relationship to the way that the rest of the hair was styled. Alternately the side hair could be smoothed back over the ears or looped and braided, with the ends tucked into the bun at the back.
Linen caps with frills, lace, and ribbons were worn by married women indoors, especially for daywear. These could also be worn in the garden with a parasol.
Bonnets for street wear were smaller than in the previous decade, and were less heavily decorated. The decorations that did adorn bonnets included flowers on the inside brim or a veil that could be draped over the face. Married women wore their caps under their bonnets. the crown and brim of the bonnet created a horizontal line and when tied under the chin, the brim created a nice frame around the face.
For evening, feathers, pearls, lace, or ribbons were worn in the hair. There was also a small brimless bonnet worn with the ribbon untied at the nape of the neck.
Underwear
Women’s undergarments were essentially unchanged from the previous period; a knee-length chemise was worn beneath a boned corset and masses of starched petticoats. Also, some undergarments, like the corset, were worn to make women look thinner.
Outerwear
With the narrow, sloping shoulder line of the 1840s, the shawl returned to fashion, where it would remain through the 1860s. It was now generally square and worn folded on the diagonal.
Riding habits consisted of a high-necked, tight-waisted jacket with long snug sleeves, worn over a tall-collared shirt or chemisette, with a long matching petticoat or skirt. Contrasting waistcoats or vests cut like those worn by men were briefly popular. Tall hats or broad-brimmed hats like those worn by men were worn.
With the new narrower sleeves, coats and jackets returned to fashion. These were generally knee-length with a cape-like collar. Ankle-length cloaks with cape-collars to cover slits for the arms were worn in cold or wet weather. Ermine muffs with attached handkerchiefs were worn to keep hands warm and be fashionable.
The pelerine was a popular name for wide, capelike collars that extended over the shoulders and covered the upper chest. Sometimes they had layers of tiered fabric, long front panels hanging down from center front, or were also belted at the natural waistline.
The mantlet was a general name for any small cape worn as outerwear.
Style gallery - 1840-44
1 - c. 1840
2 - 1841
3 - 1841
4 - 1841
5 -1842
6 - 1842
7 - 1844
8 - 1844
Transitional gown, c. 1840. The fullness at the shoulder has moved down the arm, and although the gown is still belted in the 1830s manner, the fabric is gathered in to accentuate the V-shaped front rather than the breadth of the shoulders. This is an early image of hair worn in cascades of curls or ringlets.
1841 fashion plate shows lower sleeve fullness, triangular or V-shaped emphasis in the bodice, and a sloping shoulder line. The indoor cap is trimmed with ribbon loops and frills.
Viennese summer fashions for 1841 feature pleated panels at the breast and sloping shoulder over long sleeves. The waist is narrow and slightly pointed, and skirts are bell-shaped.
Marie-Louis, Queen of the Belgians wears a red velvet evening gown with a pointed waist. He hair is worn in a mass of sausage curls, 1841.
A fashion plate from La Mode which seems to play up the contrast between a menswear-influenced riding habit and more ordinary high fashion.
Fanny Hensel wears the V-neckline, sloped shoulder, and cascades of side curls fashionable in 1842.
Fashion plate from Le Moniteur de la Mode. Day dress (left) with cape-collared jacket and evening dress (right).
Day dresses of August 1844 show detail on lower sleeves. The dress on the left is an evening style.
Style gallery - 1845-49
1 - 1845
2 - c.1845
3 - 1846
4 - c. 1847
5 - 1847
6 - 1848
7 - 1848
8 - 1849
Vicomtess Othenin d’Haussonville wears her hair parted in the center and smoothed over her ears.
Hairstyle of c.1845, with a central part, long sausage curls, and a bun on the back of the crown, is a fashionably romantic echo of mid-seventeenth century styles. This style would remain popular into the next decade. German, c. 1845.
Young lady of Holland wears a lace collar and ruffled chemise or chemisette with her dark dress.
Fashion plate of a riding habit c.1847 features a cutaway jacket over a contrasting waistcoat and shirt with a stiff turned-down collar. The lady wears dashing plumed hat.
Underwear of 1847: This woman is unlacing her corset, having stepped out of her petticoats. Her chemise is knee-length, with sleeves ending just above the elbow.
Baroness Rothschild wears a pink satin evening gown with rows of ruching at the hem and lace frills at the collar and sleeves, all trimmed with ribbon bows. Her hair is smoothed over her ears and decorated with ostrich plumes, 1848.
In Winterhalter’s portrait of 1848, Princess Maria Carolina Augusta of Bourbon-Two Sicilies wears her hair parted in the center and hanging in sausage curls. Her skirt is gathered with wide, flat pleats, and the pleating on her bodice is visible through the black lace.
Fashion illustration of 1849. The lady on the left wears a low-waisted gown and an outdoor bonnet. The lady on the right wears a short jacket over her gown and a lacey indoor cap.
Men’s fashion
Landscape painter Oswald Achenbach wears a broad-brimmed hat for a painting tour of Italy. He wears a striped ascot and his waiscoat has the rounded chest and lowered waistline of the late 1840s. He waistcoat is finished with two points at the lowered waist and contrasts with both his striped trousers and brown coat. Similar styles were worn in the American West at this time.
Overview
In this period, men’s fashion plates show the lowered waistline taking on a decided point at the front waist, which was accompanied by a full rounded chest. Albert, Prince Consort of Queen Victoria, had a high influence on male fashion, primarily because of his young age at the time of his wife’s coronation, and his great attention to his appearance. Therefore, the clothing, particularly of upper class gentleman, continued to follow the trend of earlier decades with full shoulders and chest, and a tightly-cinched waist.
Shirts and cravats
Shirts of linen or cotton featured lower standing collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide cravats or neck ties tied in several different ways. 1. around the neck, knotted in front and puffed up to hide the shirt collar and create a pigeon like neck, 2. similar to the first version but tucked down into the waistcoat, 3. around the neck and knotted into a bow tie. 4. The “Osbaldiston” - a barrel shape knot under the chin, 5. knotted in a wide pointy bow. Dark cravats were popular for day wear and patterned ones were worn in the country.
At this time, the dickey was introduced, a false shirt front usually made of satin. It was worn as an “intentionally messy” look.
Coats and waistcoats
Frock coats (in French redingotes) were worn for informal day wear, were calf length, and might be double-breasted. Shoulders were narrower and slightly sloped. Waistcoats or vests were single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist.
A cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers for any formal daytime…
1500
Sunday, September 27th, 2009
Long Sleeve Nitrile Gloves ,
Events of 1500
January 5 Duke Ludovico Sforza recaptures Milan, but is soon driven out again by the French.
February 17 Battle of Hemmingstedt: The Danish army fails to conquer the peasants’ republic of Dithmarschen.
April 22 Portuguese navigator Pedro lvares Cabral officially discovers Brazil and claims the land for Portugal. He has 13 vessels with him.
August 10 Diogo Dias discovered an island they named after St Lawrence after the saint day they had first sighted the island later known as Madagasca , curtain lining fabric .
August Second Battle of Lepanto: The Turkish fleet of Kemal Reis defeats the Venetians. The Turks proceed to capture Modon and Coron, the “two eyes of the Republic. , microfiber suede .
November 11 Treaty of Granada: Louis XII of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon agree to divide the Kingdom of Naples between them.
November 16 Emperor Go-Kashiwabara accedes to the throne of Japan.
Undated
Europe’s population is estimated at 56.7 million (Spielvogel).
The Luo, a Nilotic people from modern Sudan, settle the Cwezi states, establishing the state of Bunyoro-Kitara (approximate date).
Diogo Dias is the first European to see Madagascar.
The High Renaissance starts.
Duarte Barbosa arrives in India. He works as interpreter and translator in Cochin and Cananor in Kerala.
1500 in other calendars
Gregorian calendar
1500
MD
Ab urbe condita
2253
Armenian calendar
949
Bah’ calendar
-344 -343
Berber calendar
2450
Buddhist calendar
2044
Burmese calendar
862
Byzantine calendar
7008 7009
Chinese calendar
(4136/4196-12-1)
to
(4137/4197-12-11)
Coptic calendar
1216 1217
Ethiopian calendar
1492 1493
Hebrew calendar
5260 5261
Hindu calendars
- Vikram Samvat
1555 1556
- Shaka Samvat
1422 1423
- Kali Yuga
4601 4602
Holocene calendar
11500
Iranian calendar
878 879
Islamic calendar
905 906
Japanese calendar
Mei 9
(9)
Korean calendar
3833
Thai solar calendar
2043
v d e
Births
January 5 John of Avila, Spanish mystic and saint (d. 1569)
February 22 Cardinal Rodolfo Pio da Carpi, Italian humanist (d. 1564)
February 24 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1558)
April 12 Joachim Camerarius, German classical scholar (d. 1574)
April 23 Alexander Ales, Scottish theologian (d. 1565)
May 17 Frederick II, Duke of Mantua, (d. 1540)
November 1 Benvenuto Cellini, Italian goldsmith and sculptor (d. 1571)
date unknown
Johannes Aal, Swiss theologian and composer (d. 1553)
Charles Dumoulin, French jurist (d. 1566)
Reginald Cardinal Pole, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1558)
Johann Stumpf, Swiss writer (d. 1576)
probable
Wu Cheng’en, Chinese novelist (d. 1582)
Heinrich Faber, German music theorist (d. 1552)
Francisco de Moraes, Portuguese writer (d. 1572)
Mem de S, Governor-General of Brazil (d. 1572)
Deaths
May 28
Bartolomeu Dias, Portuguese explorer (b. c. 1450)
Thomas Rotherham, English cleric and minister (b. 1423)
June 26 Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset (b. 1499)
September 2 Albert, Duke of Saxony (b. 1443)
September 15 John Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. c. 1420)
October 6 John Alcock, English churchman (b. c.1430)
October 21 Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado of Japan (b. 1442)
date unknown
Michael Tarchaniota Marullus, scholar, poet and soldier (b. c. 1453)
probable
Juan Prez de Gijn, Spanish composer (b. 1460)
Stefano Infessura, humanist writer (b. c. 1435)
Fyodor Kuritsyn, Russian statesman
See also Category: 1500 deaths.
Categories: 1500Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources (Erik9bot)
Audi V8
Friday, September 18th, 2009
Slag Crushing Machine ,
Overview
The Audi V8 car featured as standard Audi’s ‘trademark’ quattro permanent four-wheel drive system, and a 32 valve, twin double overhead camshaft (2xDOHC) V8 engine, with options of a five-speed manual, six-speed manual, or four-speed electronically controlled ZF 4HP24A automatic transmissions, giving it the power and performance abilities to match the then comparable V8-powered offerings from BMW and Mercedes-Benz.
The Audi V8 was never a huge sales success despite the obvious qualities of the car. From October 1988 to November 1993, approximately 21,000 Audi V8’s were produced.[citation needed] The range-topping Audi V8 was released at about the same time as the original Lexus LS400, and in many respects, the Audi was a superior product both to the Lexus, and its German competitors such as the Mercedes S-Class (Mercedes-Benz W126), the BMW 7 Series (BMW E32), and the British Jaguar XJ-series (Jaguar XJ Mark 2, XJ40).[citation needed] The Audi V8 was the only car in its class to offer four-wheel drive, and a fully galvanised body as standard.
The Audi V8 was specifically designed to be a top of the range ‘flagship’ car, having what was then optional features like leather seating, and Audi’s famous quattro 4wd - as standard. However, this was reversed with the current Audi A8, where the base model is equipped with front-wheel drive, diesel engine - and the leather is an option!
The Audi V8 created a new ‘elevated’ image for its company, Audi AG, because customers and the motoring industry as a whole were now viewing Audi as a true manufacturer of prestigious luxury cars, providing a credible alternative to the then established competitors. In that matter, this car was a real cornerstone in developing the history of the Audi marque as we know today , scrap metal hms .
Today, the V8 has a cult following in many countries, and many examples are in the hands of enthusiasts who appreciate the quality and performance offered by what has turned out to be a durable and well-built car , steel water tank .
Body style
The car body style of the Audi V8 resembled the Typ 44 Audi 100 and 200 models, and was based on a stretched version of the Volkswagen Group C3 automobile platform, known either as the D1 or D11 platform. The V8 differed from the Audi 100/200 in having a unique grille design, V8 badges front and rear (chrome coloured for the 3.6, and red for the 4.2), unique bumpers, extended wheelbase, pronounced wheel arches, all-red rear lights, and larger 16″ or 17″ roadwheels. Much attention was lavished on the vehicle’s new internal combustion engine, namely a V8 engine, although the Audi V8 was also significant in that it was the first production Audi road car to combine the quattro 4WD system with an automatic transmission.
There was also long wheelbase (LWB) version which was 30 centimetres (12 in) longer than the standard V8 model, it was assembled at Steyr-Daimler-Puch factory in Graz. Approximately 300 long-wheelbase vehicles were produced.[clarification needed (where was this info sourced?)]
Powertrain
Powertrain detail of the Audi V8 eventually featured one of two all-new, all-aluminium alloy internal combustion engines - both petrol engines, and both V8s with thirty two valves (four valves per cylinder) with dual valve springs, and four overhead camshafts (4OHC). These new designs would set the pattern for future Volkswagen Group V8 engines. As well as using an all-aluminium alloy for the cylinder block (when the established material was grey cast iron), the camshafts were driven using hybrid methods. A rubber/kevlar toothed timing belt, driven from the front of the crankshaft drives just one of the overhead camshafts - the exhaust camshafts in each cylinder head. The inlet camshafts are then driven via a simplex roller chain from the exhaust camshaft - the right bank, comprising cylinders 1-4 at the rear of the engine, and the left bank (cyls 5-8) at the front of the engine, immediately behind the timng belt. This method effectively reduced the complexity of the valve gear drive timing belt layout (known to be very complex on V engines), and as a result, required less components (idler rollers and guides) - leading to slightly easier (and therefore cheaper) maintenance of the timing belt and associated components. The actual intervals for changing the timing belts do vary - the 3.6 V8 (PT) requires changing every 90,000 kilometres (60,000 mi), whereas the 4.2 V8 (ABH) goes longer between intervals at 120,000 km (75,000 mi). A thermostatically controlled electric cooling fan also became standard, replacing the engine-driven viscous fans on earlier cars. This not only provided forced airflow for the engine coolant radiator, but also for the smaller engine oil cooler too.
Both engines use a Bosch Motronic engine control unit (ECU), with cylinder-bank selective knock control, dual barrel throttle valve, lambda mixture control via intake air volume metering and exhaust gas temperature sensor, and require unleaded petrol. Fuel is delivered to the combustion chambers via eight manifold-sited electronic fuel injectors, fed from two common fuel rails (one per cylinder bank), and are sequentially ‘fired’ or activated in accordance with the engine firing order. It is important to note though - whilst the 3.6 V8 is able to use 95 RON fuel, for the 4.2 V8, the more expensive 98 RON ‘SuperPlus’ unleaded is required in order to make the quoted power outputs. The use of 95 RON in the 4.2 V8 will result in a lower power output, as well as increased fuel consumption.
A choice of transmissions were offered - either a five-speed manual gearbox (parts code prefix: 016, identification code: AWW) (gear ratios- 1st: 3.500, 2nd: 1.889, 3rd: 1.231, 4th: 0.903, 5th: 0.730) with a 240 millimetres (9.4 in) single-plate clutch, or a ZF Friedrichshafen-sourced four-speed 4HP24A automatic transmission with a torque converter (parts code prefix: 018, identification codes: AKD, AYU, AZG).
Audi’s now proven ‘trademark’ quattro permanent (or semi-permanent, dependent on gearbox type) four-wheel drive system was the only offering for the driveline. The rear axle final drive unit (parts code prefix: 017, identification codes: AFV, AXZ) contains a Torsen Automatic Torque Biasing (ATB) differential, instead of the more common planetary-geared open differential. The final drive ratio is 4.111.
3.6
From initial launch of the Audi V8, the only offering was the 3.6 litre (3,562 cubic centimetres (217.4 cu in)) powerplant. This V8 engine was rated with a motive power output of 184 kilowatts (250 PS; 247 bhp), and a turning force of 340 newton metres (251 ftlbf). This powerplant is identified by chrome-coloured ‘V8′ badges on the front grille and rear bootlid.
4.2
In August 1991, and identified by red-coloured ‘V8′ badging, Audi introduced a 4.2 litre (4,172 cc (254.6 cu in)) powerplant, to compliment the choice of the existing 3.6 litre V8. This shared many components from the 3.6 V8, and this 4.2 unit was identical to the V8 used in the C4 S4 (aka Ur-S4), sharing the same rated outputs and ABH identification code. Like the 3.6 V8 model, the existing four-speed automatic gearbox remainded available. However, a new six-speed manual gearbox (parts code prefix: 01E, identification codes: CBM, CBN) (gear ratios- 1st: 3.500, 2nd: 1.889, 3rd: 1.320, 4th: 1.034, 5th: 0.857-CBM, 0.806-CBN, 6th: 0.730-CBM, 0.684-CBN) replaced the five-speed manual.
engine (code)
displacement / type
fuel grade
max. power
max. torque
transmissions
0-100 km/h (62.1 mph)
top speed
3.6 V8 (PT)
3,562 cc V8
32 valve 4OHC
95 RON
unleaded petrol
184 kW (250 PS; 247 bhp)
@ 5,800 rpm
340 Nm (251 ftlbf)
@ 4,000 rpm
5-sp manual
4-sp ZF 4HP24A auto
7.6 secs*
9.2 secs
244 km/h (152 mph)*
235 km/h (146 mph)*
4.2 V8 (ABH)
4,172 cc V8
32 valve 4OHC
98 RON
unleaded petrol
206 kW (280 PS; 276 bhp)
@ 5,800 rpm
400 Nm (295 ftlbf)
@ 4,000 rpm
6-sp manual
4-sp ZF 4HP24A auto
6.8 secs*
7.7 secs
250 km/h (155.3 mph)
* = With manual gearbox
Steering, brakes, wheels
The Audi V8 came equipped with power assisted (PAS) rack and pinion steering as standard. An electronically controlled variable assisted ’servotronic’ version was also available.
It was fitted with a high performance brake system, which included radially ventilated disc brakes front and rear. The fronts were rather unusual - sized at 310 millimetres (12.20 in) in diameter by 25 mm (0.984 in) thick, but mounted the caliper inside the disc - and often coined the phrase “UFO brakes”. The fronts also incorporated electronic brake pad wear sensors. The rears were 269 mm (10.59 in) by 20 mm (0.787 in), and incorporated a cable operated parking brake. A Bosch Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) was also standard.
Standard roadwheels were 7.5J x 15 H2 ET35 ‘aero’ style light alloy wheels shod with 215/60 R15 steel belted radial tyres. An optional multi-spoke BBS sourced (with Audi badge) alloy wheels were also available, in either 8.0J x 16, or 8.0J x 17 sizes.
Features
Audi V8 interior (notice GSM phone mounted as standard)
The Audi V8 came…
Chevrolet Corvette
Friday, September 18th, 2009
New Cutting Scrap (Bushelling Scrap / Black Iron) ,
Early history
General Motors hired designer Harley Earl in 1927. Earl loved sports cars, and GIs returning after serving overseas in the years following World War II were bringing home MGs, Jaguars, Alfa Romeos, and the like. In 1951, Nash Motors began selling an expensive two-seat sports car, the Nash-Healey, that was made in partnership with the Italian designer Pinin Farina and British auto engineer Donald Healey, but there were few moderate-priced models. Earl convinced GM that they also needed to build a two-seat sports car, and with his Special Projects crew began working on the new car later that year, which was code named “Project Opel.” The result was the 1953 Corvette, unveiled to the public at that year’s Motorama car show. The original concept for the Corvette emblem incorporated an American flag into the design, but was changed well before production since associating the flag with a product was frowned upon.
Myron Scott is credited for naming the car after the corvette, a small, maneuverable fighting frigate. The first Corvettes were virtually hand-built in Flint, Michigan in Chevrolet’s Customer Delivery Center, now an academic building at Kettering University. The outer body was made out of then-revolutionary fiberglass, selected in part because of steel quotas left over from the war. Underneath the new body material were standard Chevrolet components, including the “Blue Flame” inline six-cylinder truck engine, two-speed Powerglide automatic transmission, and drum brakes from Chevrolet’s regular car line. Though the engine’s output was increased somewhat, thanks to a triple-carburetor intake exclusive to the Corvette, performance of the car was decidedly “lackluster”. Compared to the British and Italian sports cars of the day, the Corvette was underpowered, required a great deal of effort as well as clear roadway to bring to a stop, and even lacked a “proper” manual transmission. A Paxton centrifugal supercharger became available in 1954 as a dealer-installed option, greatly improving the Corvette’s straight-line performance, but sales continued to decline.
The Chevrolet division was GM’s entry-level marque. GM was seriously considering shelving the project, leaving the Corvette to be little more than a footnote in automotive history, and would have done so if not for two important events. The first was the introduction in 1955 of Chevrolet’s first V8 engine since 1919, and the second was the influence of a Soviet migr in GM’s engineering department, Zora Arkus-Duntov. The new 265 cu in (4.3 L) V8 became available with a three-speed manual transmission late in the model year turning the “rather anemic Corvette into a credible if not outstanding performer”. Although not part of the original project, Arkus-Duntov was the architect of the car’s performance image and in 1956 he became the director of high-performance vehicle design and development for Chevrolet helping him earn the nickname “Father of the Corvette.”
Another key factor in the Corvette’s survival was Ford’s introduction, in 1955, of the two-seat Thunderbird, which was billed as a “personal luxury car”, not a sports car. Even so, the Ford-Chevrolet rivalry in those days demanded that GM not appear to back down from the challenge. The “T-Bird” was changed to a four-seater in 1958 , scrap machine .
C1 (19531962 , used rail .
Main article: Chevrolet Corvette C1
1954 Corvette with standard factory stone guards on lights.
1958 Corvette roadster with non factory wheels.
The first generation is most commonly referred to as a “solid-axle”, based on the fact that independent rear suspension (IRS) was not available until 1963. The first generation started in 1953 and ended in 1962.
With limited production due to the fact that they were all hand built and assembled, the 1953 Corvette, with a total of only 300 units produced, is the rarest and most sought after Corvette model year. With few changes except for color choices and production numbers, the 1954 is the last Corvette to have a 6-cylinder engine. 1955 saw the introduction of the V8 engine, replacing the underpowered “Blue Flame” straight-6. The first seven 55’s off the production line did however feature the in-line 6. Aside from the engine, the 1955 model can be differentiated by its logohe “V” in Corvette is enlarged and gold colored, signifying the V8 engine under the hood.
In 1956 a new body was designed for the car which changed it from a country club style sports car. One noteworthy addition of optional fuel injection in mid-1957 (also available on Chevrolet Bel Air). Fuel injection first saw regular use on a gasoline engine two years prior on the Mercedes-Benz 300SL “gullwing” roadster. Although the Corvette’s GM-Rochester injection used a constant flow system as opposed to the diesel style nozzle metering system of the Mercedes’, it nevertheless produced about 290 hp (216 kW) (gross). The number was listed by Chevrolet’s advertising agency for the 283 hp/283 CID (4.6L) “one hp per cubic inch” slogan, making it one of the first mass-produced engines in history to reach 1 hp/CID. Other early options included power windows (1956), hydraulically operated power convertible top (1956), four speed manual transmission (late 1957), and heavy duty brakes and suspension (1957).
The 1958 Corvette saw another body freshening and more options available. This year had the most exterior chrome and was the heaviest of the C-1s. From its quad headlights and hood louvers to its twin trunk spars and bumper exiting exhaust, it was the flashiest Corvette ever built. 1959-60 saw little changes except ever decreasing chrome and increasing HP. For 1961 a complete change to the rear of the car was made, with hints of things to come. It had a “boat tail” rear with the first year to have 4 round tail lights. In 1962, the Chevrolet 283 cu. in. (4.6L) small block was enlarged to 327 cu in (5.4 L) and produced a maximum of 360 hp (268 kW) making it the fastest of the C-1s and by now almost completely devoid of chrome.
1962 was the last year for many things: wrap around windshield, solid rear axle and convertible-only body style. The trunk lid and exposed headlights disappeared for decades, returning in 1998 and 2005, respectively.
Oldest surviving unit
The oldest surviving production Corvette is serial number E53F001003. This historic, one-time GM “test mule” is the third 1953 Corvette to ever come off the Flint assembly line and is known as “double-o-three” to Corvette enthusiasts. It was sold at a Barrett-Jackson auction on January 21, 2006 in Scottsdale, AZ for US$1,000,000.
However, the oldest Corvette in existence is believed to be the EX-122, a pre-production prototype that was hand built and first shown to the public at the 1953 GM Motorama at the Waldorf-Astoria in New York City on January 17, 1953. That car can now be seen at the Atlantic City Showroom and Museum of Kerbeck Corvette.
Another noteworthy 1953 Corvette belonged to actor John Wayne. Vin #51 was delivered to Wayne on October 7, 1953. It is currently on display at the National Automobile Museum (formerly the Harrah’s Collection) in Reno, Nevada.
C2 (19631967)
Main article: Chevrolet Corvette C2
1963 Chevrolet Corvette Sting Ray split-window coupe.
The second generation, or mid-year, was designed by Larry Shinoda with major inspiration from a previous unproduced design called the “Q Corvette” by Peter Brock and Chuck Pohlmann, and under the styling direction of Bill Mitchell, started in 1963 and ended in 1967. Introducing a new name, Corvette Sting Ray, the 1963 model year Corvette was the first year for a coupe with its distinctive split rear window and non-functioning hood vents as well as an independent rear suspension. Duntov never liked the split rear window because it blocked rear vision. Bill Mitchell said if you eliminate the split you might as well forget the whole design. Duntov got his way on the 1964 model and the now unique ‘63 model gained the name “Split Window Coupe”. The decorative hood vents were also eliminated for ‘64. Maximum power for 1963 was 360 hp (268 kW) and was raised to 375 hp (280 kW) in 1964.
Four-wheel disc brakes were introduced in 1965, as was a “big block” engine option (the 396 CID (6.5 L) V8). Side exhaust pipes became optional on the 1965 Sting Ray and persisted through 1967, then again for 1969. Chevrolet would up the ante in 1966 with the introduction of an even larger 427 CID (7 L) version, creating what would be one of the most collectible Corvettes ever. In 1967 an L-88 version of the 427 was introduced, which was rated at 430 hp (321 kW), but unofficial estimates place the actual output at 560 hp (418 kW) or more. Only twenty such engines were installed at the factory in the 1967 Corvette, and the cars can fetch US$1,000,000 or more in auction today. From 1967 to 1969, the 1282 cu ft/min Holley triple two-barrel carburetor, or Tri-Power, was available on the 427. The 1967 Corvette originally was going to be the first of the C3 generation; however, due to delays the C3 had to be put off until 1968. This was also the first year for the L-88 engine option with about 550 bhp (410 kW). Other early options available on the C2 included the WonderBar auto-tuning AM radio, an AM-FM radio (mid 1963), air conditioning (late 1963), a telescopic steering wheel (1965) and headrests, presumably to prevent whiplash (1966).
1965 327/375 hp (5.4 L/280 kW) Fuel Injected Corvette Sting Ray Roadster.
The 1965 introduction of the 425 hp 396 CID big block was ultimately the harbinger of doom for the Rochester…
Volkswagen Beetle
Friday, September 18th, 2009
Leather Polishing Cloth ,
History
“The People’s Car”
Advertisement from c.1939 says “Five marks a week you must put aside - If in your own car you want to ride!”)
Starting in 1931, Ferdinand Porsche and Zndapp developed the “Auto fr Jedermann” (car for everybody). This was the first time the name “Volkswagen” was used. Porsche already preferred the flat-4 cylinder engine, but Zndapp used a watercooled 5-cylinder radial engine. In 1932, three prototypes were running. All of those cars were lost during the war, the last in a bombing raid over Stuttgart in 1945.
Porsche Type 12, 1931/32 by Zndapp Nrnber , urea manufacturer .
In 1933, Adolf Hitler gave the order to Ferdinand Porsche to develop a “Volks-Wagen” . The name means “people’s car” in German, in which it is pronounced [folksvgn]). He required a basic vehicle capable of transporting two adults and three children at 100 km/h (62 mph). The “People’s Car” would be available to citizens of the Third Reich through a savings scheme at 990 Reichsmark, about the price of a small motorcycle (an average income being around 32RM a week) , bosch wipers .
Erwin Komenda, Porsche’s chief designer, was responsible for the design and style of the car. But production only became worthwhile when finance was backed by the Third Reich. War started before large-scale production of the Volkswagen started, and manufacturing shifted to producing military vehicles. Production of civilian VW automobiles did not start until post-war occupation.
The military Beetle and production up to 1945
Kommandeurwagen
Initially called the Porsche 60 by Ferdinand Porsche, it was officially named the KdF-Wagen when the project was launched. The name refers to Kraft durch Freude (Strength Through Joy), the official leisure organization in the Third Reich. It was later known as the Type 1, but became more commonly known as the Beetle after World War II.
Prototypes appeared from 1931; the first were produced by Zndapp in Nrnberg, the Porsche Type 12. The next prototype series (Porsche Type 32) were built in 1933 by NSU, another motorcycle company. When Chrysler brought out its DeSoto Airflow coupe in 1934, final design for the car was decided.
In October 1935 the first Type 60 was ready. In 1935 testing of the “V3″ started. The “VW30″ prototypes had further testing in 1937. All cars already had the distinctive round shape and the air-cooled, rear-mounted engine, except for the Type 12, Zndapp preferred a 5-cylinder radial watercooled engine.
The factory had only produced a handful of cars by start of the war in 1939. Consequently, the first volume-produced versions of the car’s chassis were military vehicles, the Kbelwagen Type 82 (approx. 52,000 built) and the amphibious Schwimmwagen Type 166 (approx. 14,000 built).
The car was designed to be as simple as possible mechanically, so that there was less to go wrong; the aircooled 985 cc 25 horsepower (19 kW) motors proved especially effective in actions of the German Afrika Korps in Africa’s desert heat. This was due to the built-in oil-cooler, and the superior performance of the flat-4 engine configuration. The innovative suspension design used compact torsion bars instead of coil or leaf springs. The Beetle is more or less airtight and will float on water, indeed it is hard to slam the door on one since the difference in air pressure pushes it back before it shuts.
The model village of Stadt des KdF-Wagens was created in Lower Saxony in 1938 for the benefit of the workers at the factory.
A handful of Beetles were produced specifically for civilians, primarily for the Nazi elite, in the years 19401945, but production figures were small. Because of gasoline shortages, a few wartime “Holzbrenner” Beetles were fueled by wood pyrolysis gas producers under the hood. In addition to the Kbelwagen, Schwimmwagen, and handful of others, the factory managed another wartime vehicle: the Kommandeurwagen; a Beetle body mounted on the Kbelwagen chassis.
669 Kommandeurwagens were produced up to 1945, when all production was halted because of heavy damage to the factory by Allied air raids. Much of the essential equipment had already been moved to underground bunkers for protection, which let production resume quickly after hostilities ended.
Conflict with Tatra
Much of the Beetle design was inspired by the advanced Czech Tatra cars, designed under chief engineer Hans Ledwinka. In particular, Tatra T97 and T77a models show striking similarities with the later Volkswagen from many angles.
Thirties Tatras used streamlined bodies with rear-mounted engines. The T97, which is widely held to be the closest Tatra model to Porsche Volkswagen, had a four-cylinder horizontally-opposed (lat four) air-cooled engine. On a smaller scale, the company V570, a prototype for a smaller car, also shows quite a resemblance to the later German car.
But it wasn just Tatra aerodynamic styling that influenced Porsche. Tatra had pioneered the use of air-cooling in road vehicle engines with the original T77 in 1934. Air-cooling was demanding technologically, but desirable: there was no anti-freeze in the 1930s, so a vehicle could not be left parked for long in cold weather with its coolant in situ. Tatra wealthy customers could afford to pay for advanced technology, but Ferdinand Porsche was out on a limb in specifying air-cooling for his people car. In the end, it was subsidies from the Nazi government that paid for Porsche engineering good taste and brought the convenience of air-cooling to a mass audience albeit only after the second world war.
According to the book Car Wars, Adolf Hitler called the Tatra ‘the kind of car I want for my highways’. In the same book, it is said that Ferdinand Porsche admitted o have looked over Ledwinka shoulder while designing the Volkswagen. Tatra launched a lawsuit, but this was stopped when Germany invaded Czechoslovakia. At the same time, Tatra was forced to stop producing the T97. The matter was re-opened after WW2 and in 1961 Volkswagen paid Tatra 3,000,000 Deutsche Marks in compensation. These damages meant that Volkswagen had little money for the development of new models and the Beetle’s production life was necessarily extended. Tatra ceased producing passenger cars in 1950, then resumed again in 1954 as a manufacturer of large luxurious cars and limousines under various Communist governments in Czechoslovakia. Even the company last limousines were rear-engined and air cooled.
Tatra is now a truck manufacturer. All its engines are still air-cooled, despite the demands of modern emissions regulations.
Post-war production and boom
In occupied Germany, the Allies followed the Morgenthau plan to remove all German war potential by complete or partial pastoralization. As part of this, in the Industrial plans for Germany, the rules for which industry Germany was to be allowed to retain were set out. German car production was set at a maximum of 10% of the 1936 car production numbers.
The Volkswagen factory at Wolfsburg was handed over by the Americans to British control in 1945; it was to be dismantled and shipped to Britain. Thankfully for Volkswagen, no British car manufacturer was interested in the factory; “the vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirement of a motor-car … it is quite unattractive to the average buyer … To build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise.” The factory survived by producing cars for the British Army instead. Allied dismantling policy changed in late 1946 to mid 1947, although heavy industry continued to be dismantled until 1951. In March 1947 Herbert Hoover helped change policy by stating
“There is the illusion that the New Germany left after the annexations can be reduced to a ‘pastoral state’. It cannot be done unless we exterminate or move 25,000,000 people out of it.”
The re-opening of the factory is largely accredited to British Army officer Major Ivan Hirst (19162000). Hirst was ordered to take control of the heavily bombed factory, which the Americans had captured. His first task was to remove an unexploded bomb which had fallen through the roof and lodged itself between some pieces of irreplaceable production equipment; if the bomb had exploded, the Beetle’s fate would have been sealed. Hirst persuaded the British military to order 20,000 of the cars, and by 1946 the factory was producing 1,000 cars a month. During this period the car and its town changed their Nazi-era names to Volkswagen (people’s car) and Wolfsburg, respectively. The first 1,785 Beetles were made in a factory near Wolfsburg in 1945.
The jeweled one-millionth VW Beetle
Following the Army-led restart of production,former Opel manager (and formerly a detractor of the VW*) Heinz Nordhoff was appointed director of the Volkswagen factory, under whom production increased dramatically over the following decade, with the one-millionth car coming off the assembly line by 1955. During this Post-war period, the Beetle had superior performance in its category with a top speed of 115 km/h (71 mph) and 0-100 km/h (0-60 mph) in 27.5 seconds on 36 mpg (15 km/l) for the standard 25 kw (33 hp) engine. This was far superior to the Citron 2CV and Morris Minor, and even competitive with more modern small cars like the Mini of the 1960s and later.
According to the book Small Wonder by Walter Henry Nelson:
“The engine fires up immediately without a choke. It has tolerable road-handling and is economical to maintain. Although a small car, the engine has great elasticity and gave the feeling of better output than its small nominal size.”
But opinion in the United States was not flattering, perhaps because of…
Armrest
Friday, September 18th, 2009
Semi-precious Stone Cabochon And Crystal Healing Wand ,
does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve it by citing reliable sources. Tagged since June 2009.
The notability of this article’s subject is in question. If notability cannot be established, it may be listed for deletion or removed. Tagged since June 2009.
The armrest in the backseat of a Lincoln Town Car, featuring cupholders.
Look up armrest in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
In an automotive context, an armrest (or arm rest) is a feature found in many modern vehicles on which occupants can rest their arms.
Armrests are more prolific in larger, more expensive models of car.
Front
In the front of the car, a central armrest, which commonly folds away based on user preference, will also often include a storage compartment and sometimes even cup holders. Some also provide the location for controls for non-essential functions of the vehicle, such as climate control or window motors. The central armrest are buit in strong plastic material and have a soft pad covered in textile or leather. Examples of front central armrests at woodcompany.com
Sometimes one or two armrests may also be attached to each individual seat, a feature commonly found in minivans (MPVs) and some SUVs.
Frequently there is a further armrest built into the door of the car, often forming part of the door pulling handle.
Rear
A rear arm-rest will typically fold away between the back seats, to allow for the central (third) seating place to be used.
In some designs where occupant safety is emphasised, including some Volvo models, the armrest doubles as a child seat, complete with specially adjustable seatbelt.
As with the front, it is not unusual to have armrests built into rear doors, or the side of the car if there is no rear door.
v d e
Automotive design
Part of the Automobile serie , motorcycle rear wheel .
Bod , atv mud tires .
Framework
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Compartments
Trunk/Boot/Dickie Hood/Bonnet
Doors
Butterfly doors Gull-wing door Scissor doors Suicide door Sliding doors Canopy door
Glass
Greenhouse Sunroof Power window Quarter glass Windshield/Windscreen Windshield/Windscreen wiper
Other
Curb feeler Bumper sticker Hood ornament Japan Black paint Monsoonshield Nerf bar Tire/Tyre Tow hitch Truck accessory
Exterior
Equipment
Lighting
Daytime running lamp Headlamp Hidden headlamps High-intensity discharge lamp Retroreflector Sealed beam Trafficators
Legal and other
Vehicle Identification Number Vehicle registration plate Vanity plate Parktronic Motor vehicle theft Windshield/Windscreen washer fluid Wing mirror
Interior
equipment
Instruments
Backup camera Boost gauge Buzzer Carputer Electronic instrument cluster Fuel gauge Global Positioning System and Automotive navigation system Head-up display Idiot light Malfunction Indicator Lamp Night vision Odometer Radar detector LIDAR detector Speedometer Tachometer Trip computer
Controls
Bowden cable Cruise control (speed control) Electronic throttle control Gear stick Hand brake Manettino dial Steering wheel Throttle
Theft deterrence
Key Car alarm Immobiliser Klaxon Automatic vehicle location VIN etching
Safety & seating
Airbag Armrest Automatic seat belt Bench seat Bucket seat Child safety lock Rumble seat Seat belt
Other
Air conditioning Ancillary power Car audio Car phone Center console Dashboard Flat tire Glove compartment Motorola connector Power steering Rear-view mirror Sun visor
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Categories: Automotive accessories | Automotive body partsHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from June 2009 | All articles lacking sources | Articles with topics of unclear notability from June 2009
Jeans
Thursday, September 10th, 2009
VOGUE SUNGLASSES ,
History
The word “jeans” comes from the French phrase bleu de Gnes, literally the blue of Genoa. Jeans fabric, or denim, originated independently in two places: the French town of Nmes, which ‘denim’ owes its name to; and in India, where trousers made of denim material were worn by the sailors of Dhunga, which came to be known as dungarees.
At around the same time, denim trousers were made in Chieri, a town near Turin (Italy), during the Renaissance, and were popularised in the 16th century. These trousers were sold through the harbour of Genoa, which was the capital of the independent Republic of Genoa which was a naval power.
Early examples of these trousers were made for the Genoese Navy, which required all-purpose pants for its sailors. They required pants that could be worn wet or dry, the legs of which could easily be rolled up to wear while swabbing the deck. These jeans were laundered by dragging them in large mesh nets behind the ship, and the exposure to sea water and sun would gradually bleach them to white. They were especially worn by Genoan sailors and stevedores who worked in France.
Dyein , wholesale shawl .
Traditionally, jeans were dyed to a blue color using natural indigo dye. Today, it is more common to use synthetic indigo dye or sulfur dye , y suspenders .
Riveted jean , camouflage caps .
A German-Jewish dry goods merchant Levi Strauss was selling blue jeans under the “Levi’s” name to the mining communities of California in the 1850s. One of Strauss’s customers was Jacob Davis, a tailor who frequently purchased bolts of cloth from the Levi Strauss & Co wholesale house. After one of Davis’s customers kept purchasing cloth to reinforce torn pants, he had an idea to use copper rivets to reinforce the points of strain, such as on the pocket corners and at the top of the button fly. Davis did not have the required money to purchase a patent, so he wrote to Strauss suggesting that they both go into business together. After Strauss accepted Davis’s offer, the two men received U.S. Patent 139,121, for an “Improvement in Fastening Pocket-Openings,” on May 20, 1873 , fashion glasses .
In 1885 jeans could be purchased in the US for $1.50 (approximately $34 in 2007). Today, an equivalent pair of jeans can be purchased for around $80, but more stylish pairs can cost much more. Many pairs of jeans are currently available for much less.
In popular culture
Copper rivets for reinforcing pockets are a characteristic feature of blue jeans.
The blue denim fabric of jeans
Initially, blue jeans were simply sturdy trousers worn by workers, especially in the factories during World War II. During this period, men’s jeans had the zipper down the front, whereas women’s jeans had the zipper down the right side. By the 1960s, both men’s and women’s jeans had the zipper down the front.
Boot-cut jeans became part of the official working uniform of the United States Navy in the 20th century prior to being replaced by the coveralls and utilities uniform, mostly likely inspired by their usage by European sailors in the past. The reason being was to prevent other more traditional uniforms from becoming soiled or torn in the ship’s rugged working environment and thus leaving them for wear during ceremonial occasions
In American popular culture during the 1950s, wearing of blue jeans by teenagers and young adults became symbolic of mild protest against conformity. This was considered by some older adults as disruptive; for example, some movie theaters and restaurants refused to admit patrons who wore blue jeans.
During the 1960s the wearing of blue jeans became more acceptable. By the 1970s had become a general fashion in the United States, at least for informal wear.
Notably, in the mid-1970s the denim and textiles industry was revolutionized by the introduction of the stone-washing technique by GWG (Great Western Garment Co.). Entrepreneur, importer, and noted eccentric Donald Freeland of Edmonton, Alberta pioneered the method, which helped to bring denim to a larger and more versatile market. Denim suddenly became an attractive product for all age groups and Freeland became one of the most important innovators in the history of denim and denim products. Acceptance of jeans continued through the 1980s and 1990s to the point where jeans are now a wardrobe staple, with the average North American owning seven pairs.
As imported American products, jeans were somewhat expensive, especially in the case of the Soviet Union which restricted hard currency imports. In Spain they are known as vaqueros or “cowboys,” in Danish cowboybukser meaning “cowboy pants” and in Chinese niuzaiku (SC: , TC: ), literally, “cowboy pants” (trousers), indicating their association with the American West, cowboy culture, and outdoors work. Similarly, the Hungarian name for jeans is “farmernadrg”, meaning “farmer-trousers”.
Jeans can be worn very loose in a manner that completely conceals the shape of the wearer’s lower body, or they can be snugly fitting and accentuate the body. Historic photographs indicate that in the decades before they became a staple of fashion, jeans generally fit quite loosely, much like a pair of bib overalls without the bib. Indeed, until 1960, Levi Strauss denominated its flagship product “waist overalls” rather than “jeans”.
Blue jean insulation
Recycled blue jean is becoming a popular insulation material (sometimes called Cotton Batt insulation) used in the construction of houses.[where?] Due to its low relative synthetic chemical composition and because it is made of recycled materials, it is gaining prominence in green building circles. Like conventional insulation, it moderates heat transfer and reduces sound transfer between floors or rooms. Blue Jean insulation has an R-Value of 13 to 19 (for 3.5 and 5.5 inch batts, respectively) making it a preferable insulator to typical fiberglass batts even without taking into account the environmental considerations.
Fits
Fits of jeans are determined by current styles, sex, and by the manufacturer. Here are some of the fits produced for jeans:
Ankle Jeans
Baggy jeans
Bell-bottoms/Flares/Boot-cut
Boy cut
Capris
Carpenter jeans
High waist cut
Jorts (Jean shorts)
Loose
Low-rise jeans/Hip-huggers
Overalls
Phat pants
Relaxed
Sagging
Shortalls
Skinny
Slim
Straight
Jeans come in many styles and fits based on the manufacturer. The styles popular of young adults include yellow and white fades to look as if they have been worn down and been worked in and skinny jeans worn with flats or Sperry Top-Siders in in a wide range of colors from red and purple to more traditional black and various shades of blue. Some brands even sell vintage looks where the legs are pre-scrathed and torn before use.
Rises in jeans (the distance from the crotch to the waistband) range from high-waisted to superlow-rise (Low rise can be called Low Riders). Jeans for men usually have a longer rise and zipper, whereas women have a shorter rise and zipper, although exceptions do exist and this is largely a function of current trends. In decades past, when high-waisted jeans were popular, it was often the women’s that featured a longer rise.
Quotes about jeans
“I have often said that I wish I had invented blue jeans: the most spectacular, the most practical, the most relaxed and nonchalant. They have expression, modesty, sex appeal, simplicity - all I hope for in my clothes.” Yves Saint-Laurent
See also
Denim
Designer jeans
Jean skirt
Jeans fetishism
References
^ Sullivan, James. Jeans: A Cultural History of an American Icon. London: Gotham Books. pp. 238239. ISBN 978-1592402144. OCLC 62697070.
^ “Chemistry of Blue Jeans: Indigo Synthesis and Dyeing”. University of Sydney. http://firstyear.chem.usyd.edu.au/LabManual/E36.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-02-25.
^ Sullivan, James. Jeans: A Cultural History of an American Icon. London: Gotham Books. p. 3. ISBN 978-1592402144. OCLC 62697070.
^ Lifestyle Monitor 2007 Denim Issue
^ Insulation Alternatives: Non-Fiberglass Batts
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Jeans
How Jeans Are Made
Collection of designer Jeans back pockets
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Clothing
Materials
Cotton Fur Leather Linen Nylon Polyester Rayon Silk Spandex Wool
Tops
Blouse Crop top Dress shirt Halterneck Henley shirt Hoodie Jersey Guernsey (clothing) Polo shirt Shirt Sleeveless shirt Sweater T-shirt Tube top Turtleneck
Trousers or pants
Bell-bottoms Bermuda shorts Bondage pants Boxer shorts Capri pants Cargo pants Culottes Cycling shorts Dress pants Jeans Jodhpurs Overall Parachute pants Shorts Sweatpants Windpants
Skirts
Ballerina skirt Hobble skirt Jean skirt Job skirt Leather skirt Kilt Pencil skirt Poodle skirt Prairie skirt Miniskirt Microskirt Slip Skort Train
Dresses
Ball gown Cocktail dress Evening gown Gown Jumper dress Little black dress Petticoat Sari Sundress Tea gown Wedding dress
…
