business

Nokia Data Cable ,



History

In 1993, two high-definition optical storage formats were being developed. One was the MultiMedia Compact Disc (MMCD), backed by Philips and Sony, and the other was the Super Density (SD) disc, supported by Toshiba, Time Warner, Matsushita Electric, Hitachi, Mitsubishi Electric, Pioneer, Thomson, and JVC.

Optical disc authoring

Optical disc

Optical disc driv , headrest dvd monitor .

Optical disc authorin , keyboard integrated mouse .

Authoring software

Recording technologies

Recording modes

Packet writing

Optical media types

Blu-ray Disc (BD): BD-R, BD-RE

DVD: DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-R DL, DVD+R DL, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RW DL, DVD+RW DL, DVD-RW2, DVD-RAM, DVD-D, HVD

Compact Disc (CD): Red Book, CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, 5.1 Music Disc, SACD, PhotoCD, CD Video (CDV), Video CD (VCD), SVCD, CD+G, CD-Text, CD-ROM XA, CD-i

Universal Media Disc (UMD)

Enhanced Versatile Disc (EVD)

Forward Versatile Disc (FVD)

Holographic Versatile Disc (HVD)

HD DVD: HD DVD-R, HD DVD-RW, HD DVD-RAM

High-Definition Versatile Disc (HDVD)

High definition Versatile Multilayer Disc (HD VMD)

VCDHD

GD-ROM

MiniDisc (MD) (Hi-MD)

Laserdisc (LD)

Video Single Disc (VSD)

Ultra Density Optical (UDO)

Stacked Volumetric Optical Disk (SVOD)

Five dimensional discs (5D DVD)

Standards

Rainbow Books

File systems

ISO 9660

Joliet

Rock Ridge

El Torito

Apple ISO 9660 Extensions

Universal Disk Format (UDF)

Mount Rainier

Further reading

History of optical storage media

High definition optical disc format war

This box: view talk edit

Representatives of the SD camp approached IBM, asking for advice on the file system to use for their disk as well as looking for support for their format for storing computer data. A researcher from IBM’s Almaden Research Center received that request and also learned of the MMCD development project. Wary of being caught in a repeat of the costly videotape format war between VHS and Betamax in the 1980s, he convened a group of computer industry experts, including representatives from Apple, Microsoft, Sun, Dell, and many others. This group was referred to as the Technical Working Group, or TWG. The TWG voted to boycott both formats unless the two camps agreed on a single, converged standard. Lou Gerstner, president of IBM, was recruited to apply pressure on the executives of the warring factions. Eventually, the computer companies won the day, and a single format, now called DVD, was agreed upon. The TWG also collaborated with the Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA) on the use of their implementation of the ISO-13346 file system (known as Universal Disk Format [UDF]) for use on the new DVDs.

Philips and Sony decided it was in their best interest to avoid another format war over their MultiMedia Compact Disc, and agreed to unify with companies backing the Super Density Disc to release a single format with technologies from both. The specification was mostly similar to Toshiba and Matsushita’s Super Density Disc, except for the dual-layer option (MMCD was single-sided and optionally dual-layer, whereas SD was single-layer but optionally double-sided) and EFMPlus modulation. EFMPlus was chosen due to its great resilience against disc damage, such as scratches and fingerprints. EFMPlus, created by Kees Immink (who also designed EFM), is 6% less efficient than the modulation technique originally used by Toshiba, which resulted in a capacity of 4.7 GB, as opposed to the original 5 GB. The result was the DVD specification, finalized for the DVD movie player and DVD-ROM computer applications in December 1995. Toshiba first introduced the DVD Video format in Japan in November 1996, in the United States in March 1997 (test marketed), in Europe in 1998, and in Australia in 1999. In May 1997, the DVD Consortium was replaced by the DVD Forum, which is open to all other companies. DVD specifications created and updated by DVD Forum are published as so-called DVD Books (e.g. DVD-ROM Book, DVD-Audio Book, DVD-Video Book, DVD-R Book, DVD-RW Book, DVD-RAM Book, DVD-AR Book, DVD-VR Book, etc). Some specifications for mechanical, physical and optical characteristics of DVD optical disks can be downloaded as freely available standards from ISO website. There is also DVD+RW Alliance, which publish competing DVD specifications such as DVD+R, DVD+R DL, DVD+RW or DVD+RW DL. These DVD formats are also ISO standards.

Etymology

The official DVD specification documents have never defined the initialism DVD. Usage in the present day varies, with Digital Versatile Disc, Digital Video Disc, and DVD being the most common.

DVD was originally used as an initialism for the unofficial term digital videodisk.

It was reported in 1995, at the time of the specification finalization, that the letters officially stood for Digital Versatile Disc (due to nonvideo applications).

However, the text of the press release announcing the specification finalization only refers to the technology as “DVD”, making no mention of what (if anything) the letters stood for.

A newsgroup FAQ written by Jim Taylor (a prominent figure in the industry) claims that four years later, in 1999, the DVD Forum stated that the format name was simply the three letters “DVD” and did not stand for anything.

The DVD Forum website has a section called “DVD Primer” in which the answer to the question, “What does DVD mean?” reads, “The keyword is ‘versatile.’ Digital Versatile Discs provide superb video, audio and data storage and accessll on one disc.”

DVD capacity

Capacity and nomenclature

Designation

Sides

Layers

(total)

Diameter

Capacity

(cm)

(GB)

(GiB)

DVD-1

SS SL

1

1

8

1.46

1.36

DVD-2

SS DL

1

2

8

2.66

2.47

DVD-3

DS SL

2

2

8

2.92

2.72

DVD-4

DS DL

2

4

8

5.32

4.95

DVD-5

SS SL

1

1

12

4.70

4.38

DVD-9

SS DL

1

2

12

8.54

7.95

DVD-10

DS SL

2

2

12

9.40

8.75

DVD-14

DS DL/SL

2

3

12

13.24

12.33

DVD-18

DS DL

2

4

12

17.08

15.90

SS = Single-sided; DS = Double-sided; SL = Single-layer; DL = Dual-layer.

The basic types of DVD are referred to by a rough approximation of their capacity in gigabytes. In draft versions of the specification, DVD-5 indeed held five gigabytes, but some parameters had to be changed later on to address technical challenges, so the capacity decreased.

The 12 cm type is a standard DVD, and the 8 cm variety is known as a mini-DVD. These are the same sizes as a standard CD and a mini-CD, respectively. The capacity by surface (MiB/cm) varies from 6.92MiB/cm in the DVD-1 to 18.0 MiB/cm in the DVD-18.

Note: As with hard disk drives, in the DVD realm, gigabyte and the symbol GB are usually used in the SI sense, i.e., 109 (or 1,000,000,000) bytes. For distinction, gibibyte (with symbol GiB) is used, i.e., 230 (or 1,073,741,824) bytes. Most computer operating systems display file sizes in gibibytes, mebibytes, and kibibytes, labeled as gigabyte, megabyte, and kilobyte, respectively.

Each DVD sector contains 2418 bytes of data, 2048 bytes of which are user data.

Size comparison: a 12 cm DVD+RW and a 19 cm pencil.

There is a small difference in storage space between “+” and “-” (hyphen) formats:

Capacity differences of writable DVD formats

Type

Sectors

Bytes

MB

MiB

GB

GiB

DVD SL

2,298,496

4,707,319,808

4,707.320

4,489.250

4.707

4.384

DVD+R SL

2,295,104

4,700,372,992

4,700.373

4,482.625

4.700

4.378

DVD DL

4,171,712

8,543,666,176

8,543.666

8,147.875

8.544

7.957

DVD+R DL

4,173,824

8,547,991,552

8,547.992

8,152.000

8.548

7.961

Technology

Internal mechanism of a DVD-ROM Drive.

DVD-RW Drive operating with the protective cover removed.

DVD uses 650 nm wavelength laser diode light as opposed to 780 nm for CD. This permits a smaller pit to be etched on the media surface compared to CDs (0.74 m for DVD versus 1.6 m for CD), allowing for a DVD’s increased storage capacity.

In comparison, Blu-ray, the successor to the DVD format, uses a wavelength of 405 nm, and one dual-layer disc has a 50 GB storage capacity.

Writing speeds for DVD were 1, that is, 1350 kB/s (1318 KiB/s), in the first drives and media models. More recent models, at 18 or 20, have 18 or 20 times that speed. Note that for CD drives, 1 means 150 KiB/s (153.6 kB/s), approximately 9 times slower.

DVD drive speeds

Drive speed

Data rate

~Write time* (min)

(Mbit/s)

(MB/s)

(MiB/s)

SL

DL

1

10.80

1.35

1.29

61

107

2

21.60

2.70

2.57

31

54

2.4

25.92

3.24

3.09

25

45

2.6

28.08

3.51

3.35

23

41

4

43.20

5.40

5.15

15

27

6

64.80

8.10

7.72

10

18

8

86.40

10.80

10.30

8

13

10

108.00

13.50

…

Torches & Consumables ,



Mode of action

Main article: Beta-lactam antibiotic

Like other beta-lactam antibiotics, methicillin acts by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls. It inhibits cross-linkage between the linear peptidoglycan polymer chains that make up a major component of the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria. It does this by binding to and competitively inhibiting the transpeptidase enzyme used by bacteria to cross-link the peptide (D-alanyl-alanine) used in peptidoglycan synthesis. Methicillin and other beta-lactam antibiotics are structural analogs of D-alanyl-alanine, and the transpeptidase enzymes that bind to them are sometimes called penicillin binding proteins (PBPs). (Gladwin and Trattler, 2004)

Medicinal chemistry

Methicillin is insensitive to beta-lactamase (also known as penicillinase) enzymes secreted by many penicillin-resistant bacteria. The presence of the ortho-dimethoxyphenyl group directly attached to the side chain carbonyl group of the penicillin nucleus facilitates the -lactamase resistance, since those enzymes are relatively intolerant of side-chain steric hindrance. Thus it is able to bind to penicillin binding proteins (PBPs) and inhibit peptidoglycan crosslinking, but is not bound by or inactivated by -lactamases , led mouse pad .

Clinical us , heat transfer media .

Methicillin is not used to treat patients because of its unfavorable side effect profile. But, it serves a purpose in the laboratory to determine the antibiotic sensitivity of Staph aureus to other beta-lactamase-resistant penicillins.

See also

Wikinews has related news: Supergerm deaths soar, surpass AIDS in the United States

Beta-lactam antibiotic

Flucloxacillin

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

References

Mitscher LA. Antibiotics and antimicrobial agents. In: Williams DA, Lemke TL, editors. Foye’s Principles of medicinal chemistry, 5th edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2002.

Gladwin M., Trattler B. Clinical Microbiology made ridiculously simple. 3rd edition. Miami: MedMaster, Inc.; 2004.

v d e

Antibacterials: cell envelope antibiotics (J01C-J01D)

Internal to membrane/

(inhibit peptidoglycan subunit

synthesis and transport)

NAM synthesis inhibition (Fosfomycin) DADAL/AR inhibitors (Cycloserine) bactoprenol inhibitors (Bacitracin)

Glycopeptide/

(inhibit PG chain elongation)

Vancomycin# (Oritavancin, Telavancin) Teicoplanin (Dalbavancin) Ramoplanin

-lactams/

(inhibit cross-links

with PBP)

Penicillins/

(penams)

Extended sp.

aminopenicillins: Amoxicillin# Ampicillin# (Pivampicillin, Hetacillin, Bacampicillin, Metampicillin, Talampicillin) Epicillin

carboxypenicillins: Carbenicillin (Carindacillin) Ticarcillin Temocillin

ureidopenicillins: Azlocillin Piperacillin Mezlocillin

other: Mecillinam (Pivmecillinam) Sulbenicillin

Narrow sp.

-lactamase sensitive

Benzylpenicillin (G)#: Clometocillin Benzathine benzylpenicillin# Procaine benzylpenicillin# Azidocillin Penamecillin

Phenoxymethylpenicillin (V)#: Propicillin Benzathine phenoxymethylpenicillin Pheneticillin

-lactamase resistant

Cloxacillin# (Dicloxacillin, Flucloxacillin) Oxacillin Meticillin Nafcillin

Penems

Faropenem

Carbapenems

Biapenem Doripenem Ertapenem Imipenem Meropenem Panipenem

Cephalosporins/

(cephems)

1st (PEcK)

Cefazolin# Cefacetrile Cefadroxil Cefalexin Cefaloglycin Cefalonium Cefaloridine Cefalotin Cefapirin Cefatrizine Cefazedone Cefazaflur Cefradine Cefroxadine Ceftezole

2nd (HEN)

Cefaclor Cefamandole Cefminox Cefonicid Ceforanide Cefotiam Cefprozil Cefbuperazone Cefuroxime Cefuzonam cephamycin (Cefoxitin, Cefotetan, Cefmetazole) carbacephem (Loracarbef)

3rd

Cefixime# Ceftazidime# Ceftriaxone# Cefcapene Cefdaloxime Cefdinir Cefditoren Cefetamet Cefmenoxime Cefodizime Cefoperazone Cefotaxime Cefpimizole Cefpiramide Cefpodoxime Cefsulodin Cefteram Ceftibuten Ceftiolene Ceftizoxime oxacephem (Flomoxef, Latamoxef )

4th

Cefepime Cefozopran Cefpirome Cefquinome

5th

Ceftobiprole

Veterinary

Ceftiofur Cefquinome Cefovecin

Monobactams

Aztreonam Tigemonam

-lactamase inhibitors

penam (Sulbactam, Tazobactam) clavam (Clavulanic acid)

Combinations

Co-amoxiclav (Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid)# Imipenem/cilastatin# Ampicillin/sulbactam (Sultamicillin) Piperacillin/tazobactam

Other

polymyxins/detergent (Colistin, Polymyxin B) depolarizing (Daptomycin) hydrolyze NAM-NAG (Lysozyme)

#WHO-EM. ndergoing clinical trials, not FDA approved. Withdrawn from market. Development halted.

Categories: Beta-lactam antibiotics

MERCEDES-BENZ E CLASS E200 Classic ,



History

See also: History of free software#Desktop

Origins

KDE was founded in 1996 by Matthias Ettrich, who was then a student at the Eberhard Karls University of Tbingen. At the time, he was troubled by certain aspects of the Unix desktop. Among his qualms was that none of the applications looked, felt, or worked alike. He proposed the formation of not only a set of applications, but rather a desktop environment, in which users could expect things to look, feel, and work consistently. He also wanted to make this desktop easy to use; one of his complaints with desktop applications of the time was that his girlfriend could not use them. His initial Usenet post spurred a lot of interest, and the KDE project was born.

The name KDE was intended as a word play on the existing Common Desktop Environment, available for Unix systems. CDE was an X11-based user environment jointly developed by HP, IBM, and Sun, through the X/Open Company, with an interface and productivity tools based on the Motif graphical widget toolkit. It was supposed to be an intuitively easy-to-use desktop computer environment. The K was originally suggested to stand for “Kool”, but it was quickly decided that the K should stand for nothing in particular. Additionally, one of the tips in certain versions of KDE 3 incorrectly states that the K currently is just meant to be the letter before L in the Latin alphabet, the first letter in the word Linux (which is where KDE is usually run).. In 2009 it was decided that KDE should no longer be an acronym at all, the decision comes after the ports to Windows and OS X and popular applications such as Amarok which meant KDE was no longer just a desktop , socket 478 cpus .

Matthias Ettrich chose to use the Qt toolkit for the KDE project. Other programmers quickly started developing KDE/Qt applications, and by early 1997, a few applications were being released , mitsubishi rosa bus .

First series

KDE 1.0

On 12 July 1998 KDE 1.0 was released. In the release announcement the KDE team outlined the project and its reasons for creation:

KDE is a network transparent, contemporary desktop environment for UNIX workstations. KDE seeks to fill the need for an easy to use desktop for Unix workstations, similar to the desktop environments found under the MacOS or Window95/NT. We believe that the UNIX operating system is the best operating system available today. In fact UNIX has been the undisputed choice of the information technology professional for many years. When it comes to stability, scalability and openness there is no competition to UNIX. However, the lack of an easy to use contemporary desktop environment for UNIX has prevented UNIX from finding its way onto the desktops of the typical computer user in offices and homes.

With KDE there is now an easy to use, contemporary desktop environment available for UNIX. Together with a free implementation of UNIX such as Linux, UNIX/KDE constitutes a completely free and open computing platform available to anyone free of charge including its source code for anyone to modify. While there will always be room for improvement we believe to have delivered a viable alternative to some of the more commonly found and commercial operating systems/desktops combinations available today. It is our hope that the combination UNIX/KDE will finally bring open, reliable, stable and monopoly free computing to the average computer.

DE 1.0 Release Announcement

In November 1998, the Qt toolkit was dual-licensed under the free/open source Q Public License (QPL) & a commercial-license for proprietary software developers. The same year, the KDE Free Qt foundation was created which guarantees that Qt would fall under a variant of the very liberal BSD license should Trolltech cease to exist or no free/open source version of Qt be released during 12 months. Debate continued about compatibility with the GNU General Public License (GPL), so in September 2000, Trolltech made the Unix version of the Qt libraries available under the GPL, in addition to the QPL, which eliminated the concerns of the Free Software Foundation. Trolltech continued to require licenses for developing proprietary software with Qt. The core libraries of KDE are collectively licensed under the GNU LGPL, but the only way for commercial software to make use of them was to be developed under the terms of the Qt commercial license.

Second and third series

KDE 2.0

The second series of releases, KDE 2, introduced significant technological improvements. These included DCOP (Desktop COmmunication Protocol), KIO, an application I/O library, KParts, a component object model, allowing an application to embed another within itself, and KHTML, an HTML rendering and drawing engine.

KDE 3.2 with Konqueror and the About screen. This has been described as a watershed release.

The third series was much larger than the previous series, consisting of six major releases. The API changes between KDE 2 and KDE 3 were comparatively minor, meaning that the KDE 3 can be seen as largely a continuation of the KDE 2 series. All releases of KDE 3 were built upon Qt 3, which was only released under the GPL for Linux and Unix-like operating systems, including Mac OS X. For that reason, KDE 3 was only available on Windows through ports involving an X server.

Fourth series

KDE 4.0 with Dolphin and System Settings

KDE 4 is based on Qt 4 which is also released under the GPL for Windows and Mac OS X. Therefore KDE 4 applications can be compiled and run natively on these operating systems as well.

KDE 4 includes many new technologies and technical changes. The centerpiece is a redesigned desktop and panels collectively called Plasma which replaces Kicker, KDesktop, and SuperKaramba by integrating their functionality into one piece of technology, and is intended to be more configurable for those wanting to update the decades-old desktop metaphor. There are a number of new frameworks, including Phonon, a new multimedia interface making KDE independent of any one specific media backend, Solid, an API for network and portable devices, and Decibel, a new communication framework to integrate all communication protocols into the desktop. Also featured is a metadata and search framework, incorporating Strigi as a full-text file indexing service, and NEPOMUK with KDE integration.

The release of KDE 4.0 was met with a mixed reception. While early adopters were tolerant of the lack of finish for some of its new features, the release was widely criticised because of a lack of stability and its “beta” quality. Many expected it to be an upgrade of KDE 3.5, when in fact features regressed due to its extensive changes - some of which are still works in progress. The criticism has emerged in spite of the environment being labelled as non-final in distributions such as openSUSE. On the other hand favourable reviews praised KDE 4.0 for its revolutionary changes. By the 4.2 release KDE 4 had nearly approached feature parity with KDE 3.5.[citation needed] The release was generally well received according to Thom Holwerda.

Starting with Qt 4.5, Qt was also made available under the LGPL version 2.1, a major step for KDE adoption in corporate and commercial environments. This allows KDE to better compete with GNOME, Xfce and EDE which use toolkits licensed under the LGPL, because the LGPL permits proprietary/closed source applications to link to libraries licensed under the LGPL.

Organization

Like many free/open source software projects, KDE is primarily a volunteer effort, although various companies, such as Novell (in the form of SuSE), Qt Software, and Mandriva, employ developers to work on the project. Since a large number of individuals contribute to KDE in various ways (e.g. code, translation, artwork), organization of such a project is complex. Most problems are discussed on a number of different mailing lists. Important decisions, such as release dates and inclusion of new applications, are made on the kde-core-devel list by core developers. These are developers who have made significant contributions to KDE over a long period of time. Decisions are made by outcomes of democratic voting procedures. In most cases this seems to work well, and major debates (such as the question of whether the KDE 2 API should be broken in favour of KDE 3) are rare.

The KDE project and related events are frequently sponsored by individuals, universities, and businesses. On 15 October 2006, it was announced that Mark Shuttleworth had become the first patron of KDE, the highest level of sponsorship available. On 2007-07-07, it was announced that Intel Corporation and Novell had also become patrons of KDE.

While developers and users are now located all over the world, the project retains a strong base in Germany. The web servers are located at the universities of Tbingen and Kaiserslautern, a German non-profit organization (KDE e.V.) owns the trademark on KDE and KDE conferences often take place in Germany.

Identity

Konqi, mascot of the KDE project

Kandalf the wizard

Many KDE applications have a K in the name, mostly as an initial letter and capitalized. However, there are notable exceptions like kynaptic, whose K is not capitalized, and Amarok (formerly named amaroK). The K in many KDE applications is obtained by spelling a word which originally begins with C or Q differently, for example Konsole and Kuickshow. Also, some just prefix a commonly used word with a K, for instance KOffice. Among KDE 4 applications and technologies, however, the trend is not to have a K in the name at all, such as Plasma, Phonon and Dolphin.

The KDE…

Laboratory Equipment ,



History

This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia’s quality standards. Please improve this section if you can. (August 2007)

The Microdrive was developed and launched in 1999 by IBM with a capacity of 170 MB, which was expanded to 8 GB by 2006. They weigh about 16 g (~1/2 oz), with dimensions of 42.836.45 mm (1.71.4.2 in). These were the smallest hard drives in the world at the time. From 1999 to 2003 they were known as IBM Microdrives, and from 2003 as Hitachi Microdrives, when Hitachi bought IBM’s hard drive division. Microdrive was a registered trademark by IBM and Hitachi for each period.

IBM initially released a 170 MB and 340 MB model. The next year 512 MB and 1 GB models were announced and became available. In December 2002 Hitachi bought IBM’s disk drive business, including the Microdrive technology and brand. By 2003, under Hitachi, bigger 2 GB models came out. Over the years, even larger sizes have become available. There are licensed branded Sony models called Sony Microdrive; these are re-badged Hitachi made models.

Seagate 2.5 GB 1″ CF Driv , cash register used .

In 2004 Seagate launched 2.5 and 5 GB models as well, and tends to refer to them as either 1-inch hard drives, or CompactFlash hard drives due to the trademark issue. In 2005 it launched an 8 GB model as well , tractor tires used .

Recently a Chinese manufacturer called GS Magic started marketing small form factor HDDs for CF; it has, however, been sued by Hitachi for patent infringement of the IBM design (as opposed to Seagate, which used its own technology). These drives are generally cheaper and of lower quality than Hitachi and Seagate drives and have received a plethora of bad reviews.*

A link to the product announcement , but as of yet, The company’s website is down, the US distributor said they went out of business in 02/07, and no mention of the lawsuit or the reviews has been found.

Microdrive models by timeline

Date of release of large sizes.

1999

170 megabyte (IBM MD170/A)

1999

340 megabyte (IBM)

2000

512 megabyte, 1 gigabyte (IBM)

2003

2 gigabytes (Hitachi)

2004

4 gigabytes (Hitachi), 2.5 and 5 gigabytes (Seagate)

2005

6 gigabytes (Hitachi), 8 gigabytes (Seagate)

2006

8 gigabytes (Hitachi), 8 gigabytes (Seagate)

2007

Hitachi alluded to the possible availability of a 20-gigabyte microdrive . As of June 2009, this high-capacity drive is commercially unavailable.

2008

8 gigabytes (Hitachi), 8 gigabytes (Seagate)

Availability

As of 2006 the most commonly-seen microdrives are the smaller sizes, up to 1GB. Larger (2GB to 8GB) drives, such as the 4GB and 6GB Hitachi models, the 5GB and 8GB Seagate models and the 2.2GB Magicstor drive are also available but are often embedded in Pocket hard drives, ‘high end’ mobile phones, music players, and other entertainment devices. Such embedded devices are far more popular than the loosely-sold Microdrives intended as a CompactFlash card alternative.

In USA most electronics shops do not sell separate Microdrives as they may find it economically unviable to stock them due to the fast-moving nature of the market, however they are readily available on several websites. But in most developed Asian cities such as Hong Kong and Japan Tokyo, a 8GB version of the Seagate ST1 are selling at the price (as of second quarter 2006) as low as USD220 in retail shops, and under USD50 on eBay

Applications

IBM 1 GB Microdrive

CF to IDE adaptors and USB card readers enable microdrives to be used in computers, they can then be formatted with any filesystem that the operating system supports such as ext3. It is even possible to run an operating system directly from the Microdrive. Such a system would be rather sluggish for today’s standards but still a viable option for some embedded applications. IDE adaptors are inexpensive because, like the PCMCIA adaptors, they have no integrated circuits.

Some high capacity USB drives are comprised of microdrives with a USB interface; they can often be recognized by a rectangular shape. These devices are sometimes called Pocket hard drives. However there is currently a trend for selling desktop PCs with integrated multi-card readers. If this trend continues this could eliminate the need to integrate them into pocket hard drives with USB connections.

The original JVC Everio camcorders (GZ-MC200/MC100) used 4GB IBM/Hitachi Microdrives as storage instead of the magnetic tape or DVD more commonly seen in products of this type. Current Everio models use the more common 2.5″ HDDs.

Some PDA users use Microdrives to boost the storage capacity of their PDA. The LifeDrive has an integrated 4 gigabyte microdrive as its main selling point.

Microdrives are found in the discontinued iPod mini and Creative Zen Micro mp3 players, among others. Companies making such players order the Microdrives in large quantities, which can mean that it is cheaper to buy an mp3 player with an integrated Microdrive than a separate Microdrive to add to an expandable mp3 player. An example is the Creative MuVo; many of these were bought up by those interested in purchasing a Microdrive and stripped for their Microdrive which was then replaced by a lower capacity CompactFlash card.

When combined with a PCMCIA adaptor and used in a laptop Microdrives can be a viable alternative to USB flash drives purely due to their price. The use of Microdrives over chip-based CF cards is unlikely to make any notable difference to the battery life of the laptop, and any impact that would damage the Microdrive is likely to break other components of the laptop as well. However these devices cannot be used with ordinary desktop PCs unless they are fitted with PCI PCMCIA adaptors or CF card readers.

There are third-party devices intended to let users of the Sony PSP use memory cards other than Memory Sticks. Some claim to be compatible with MicroDrives, and some even come with a MicroDrive in the package. However, while such converters work perfectly for other kinds of flash memory (SD and CompactFlash), it is no longer possible (due to firmware upgrades) to use actual MicroDrives on the PSP. The acceptable timeout delay has been decreased from the first firmware revisions, and as a result loading a game from the hard disk results in a timeout error.

Sometimes when a device with an integrated Microdrive stops working the device is taken apart and stripped of its Microdrive, which is then sold on. Unfortunately, Microdrives taken from such devices may not work in digital cameras. These drives must be accessed using ATA mode, which is not supported in all devices. Such drives, therefore, do not sell for nearly as much as CF-enabled Microdrives.

Devices with integrated microdrives

Apple iPod mini - 4GB and 6GB Hitachi (CF mode disabled)

Creative MuVo - 4GB Hitachi (CF mode disabled in later models)

Creative ZEN Micro - 5GB/6GB Seagate

Creative ZEN MicroPhoto - 4GB/8GB Seagate

Dell Digital Jukebox 5GB Seagate ST1

Hewlett-Packard Photosmart 475 - Unknown (1.5GB available to user)

HTC Athena (Dopod U1000, HTC Advantage, T-Mobile Ameo) - 8GB Unknown (most suggest Hitachi)

iriver H10 - 5GB and 6GB Seagate

Nokia N91 - 4Gb Hitachi

palmOne LifeDrive - 4GB Hitachi

Rio Carbon - Seagate ST1 5GB

Sharp Zaurus Sl-C3000

Sharp Zaurus Sl-C3100

Sharp Zaurus Sl-C3200

Sony NW-A1000 - 6GB Hitachi

TrekStor vibez - 8GB/12GB Cornice Dragon

Olympus M:robe m100 mp3 player

Navman iCN 650 - 2GB Hitachi

Advantages of Microdrives

Until 2006, Microdrives had higher capacity than CompactFlash cards.

Microdrives allow more write cycles, making them suitable for use as swapspace in embedded applications.

Microdrives might be better at handling power loss in the middle of writing. Flash storage always needs to move some old data around while writing, to ensure the flash’s finite write life is consumed equally; if there were a bug in the wear levelling algorithm it could cause data loss if the card were unplugged at the exact wrong time. Data on a magnetic hard drive is modified in place, and hard drive algorithms have many years more experience and testing over Flash.

Disadvantages of Microdrives

Inside a 1-inch Seagate drive

Seagate drive compared to a quarter

As of 2006, Microdrive’s capacity advantages were exceeded by CompactFlash cards(which are the same size and are often compatible with each other), and USB flash drives.

Being mechanical devices they are more sensitive to physical shock and temperature changes than flash memory, though in practice they are very robust and manufacturers have added several features to the more recent models to improve reliability.

A microdrive will generally not survive a 4 foot (1.2 metres) drop onto a hard surface where CF cards can be thrown off high-rise buildings and still function.[citation needed]

Newer Microdrives have a mechanism to hold the heads off the platter while the device is not in use. Early IBM models do not have this - when one gently shakes such a drive one can hear the heads click from side to side.[citation needed]

Microdrives are not as fast as the high-end CompactFlash cards; they generally operate at around 4-6 megabytes per second while high-end CF cards can operate at 45 megabytes per second. This may cause problems for photographers who shoot sequences of large images in rapid succession.

They are not designed to operate at high altitudes (over 10,000 feet), but can be safely used on most commercial…

Consultancy Services On International Trade And Indirect Tax ,



History

Main article: History of operating systems

In the beginning

Proprietary operating systems were made to sell the company’s hardware. Without system software (compilers and operating systems), a budding hardware developer had great difficulty launching a computer; the availability of operating systems not tied to a single hardware supplier - such as Digital Research’s CP/M for microcomputers, and Unix for larger computers - greatly transformed the computer industry; someone with an innovative idea could easily start producing hardware on which buyers could use standard software. In 1969-70, UNIX first appeared on the PDP-7 and later the PDP-11. It soon became capable of providing cross-platform time sharing using preemptive multitasking, advanced memory management, memory protection, and a host of other advanced features. UNIX soon gained popularity as an operating system for mainframes and minicomputers alike. Unix was inspired by Multics, as were several other operating systems, such as Data General’s AOS-VS, and IBM’s addition of such concepts as subdirectories to PC DOS in version 2.0.

Microsoft bought QDOS from Seattle Computer Products, a very simple diskette operating system somewhat similar to CP/M, to create an operating system, PC DOS, for the launch of the IBM PC, under a deal with IBM where Microsoft could still sell the operating system as MS DOS for non-IBM computers. Microsoft produced odd-numbered major version numbers while IBM was responsible for even revision numbers (2.0, 2.1, 4.0, etc) of the code base until version 6. There was very little difference between MS-DOS and PC-DOS, one example being the inclusion of GW-BASIC with MS-DOS (because some BASIC code in IBM PC ROMs was not legally allowed to be put into non-IBM computers). MS-DOS and PC-DOS soon became known simply as “DOS” (the term is now usually taken to also include other “DOSes” such as DR-DOS and FreeDOS, but it should not be confused with the command prompt program within some operating systems, COMMAND.COM). Although MS-DOS could be tailored to hardware significantly different to IBM’s PC, it soon became common for hardware vendors to make their equipment as compatible as possible with the IBM PC and its immediate IBM successors (the PC-XT and later IBM PC-AT models), since many popular DOS programs bypassed the operating system to access hardware directly for speed, requiring other manufactures to closely copy the IBM design, including its limitations. The availability of MS-DOS had two major effects on the computer industry: the commercial acceptability of “sneaky tricks” (as documented, for example, in Ralf Brown’s Interrupt List) to gain speed or functionality or copy-protection, and a market that demanded extreme compatibility (speed and cosmetic differences were the only acceptable innovations) , solar panel used .

IBM PC compatibles could also run Microsoft Xenix, a UNIX-like operating system from the early 1980s. Xenix was heavily marketed by Microsoft as a multi-user alternative to its single user MS-DOS operating system. The CPUs of these personal computers could not facilitate kernel memory protection or provide dual mode operation, so Xenix relied on cooperative multitasking and had no protected memory , lcd used .

The 80286-based IBM PC AT was the first IBM compatible personal computer capable of providing protected memory mode operation. However, this mode was hampered by software bugs in its implementation on the 286, and not widely accepted until the release of the Intel 80386. With the 386 porting BSD Unix to a PC became feasible, and various Unix-like systems (tagged “*nix” at the time), including Linux, arose, but IBM (and, initially, Microsoft) opted for OS/2 from the inception of the PS/2; Microsoft eventually going its own way with Microsoft Windows firstly as a GUI on top of DOS, then as a complete operating system.

Classic Mac OS, and Microsoft Windows 1.0-3.11 supported only cooperative multitasking (Windows 95, 98, & ME supported preemptive multitasking only when running 32-bit applications, but ran legacy 16-bit applications using cooperative multitasking), and were very limited in their abilities to take advantage of protected memory. Application programs running on these operating systems must yield CPU time to the scheduler when they are not using it, either by default, or by calling a function.

Windows NT’s underlying operating system kernel which was designed by essentially the same team as Digital Equipment Corporation’s VMS, a UNIX-like operating system which provided protected mode operation for all user programs, kernel memory protection, preemptive multi-tasking, virtual file system support, and a host of other features.

Classic AmigaOS and versions of Microsoft Windows from Windows 1.0 through Windows Me did not properly track resources allocated by processes at runtime.[citation needed] If a process had to be terminated, the resources might not be freed up for new programs until the machine was restarted.

The AmigaOS did have preemptive multitasking, as did operating systems for many larger (“supermini”) computers that, despite being technically better, were struggling in sales when faced with the mass production of increasingly-faster “Personal” Computers and customers locked into non-portable software (legacy software and proprietary office documents).

Mainframes

Through the 1950s, many major features were pioneered in the field of operating systems. The development of the IBM System/360 produced a family of mainframe computers available in widely differing capacities and price points, for which a single operating system OS/360 was planned (rather than developing ad-hoc programs for every individual model). This concept of a single OS spanning an entire product line was crucial for the success of System/360 and, in fact, IBM`s current mainframe operating systems are distant descendants of this original system; applications written for the OS/360 can still be run on modern machines. In the mid-70’s, the MVS, the descendant of OS/360 offered the first[citation needed] implementation of using RAM as a transparent cache for disk resident data.

OS/360 also pioneered a number of concepts that, in some cases, are still not seen outside of the mainframe arena. For instance, in OS/360, when a program is started, the operating system keeps track of all of the system resources that are used including storage, locks, data files, and so on. When the process is terminated for any reason, all of these resources are re-claimed by the operating system. An alternative CP-67 system started a whole line of operating systems focused on the concept of virtual machines.

Control Data Corporation developed the SCOPE operating system in the 1960s, for batch processing. In cooperation with the University of Minnesota, the KRONOS and later the NOS operating systems were developed during the 1970s, which supported simultaneous batch and timesharing use. Like many commercial timesharing systems, its interface was an extension of the Dartmouth BASIC operating systems, one of the pioneering efforts in timesharing and programming languages. In the late 1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois developed the PLATO operating system, which used plasma panel displays and long-distance time sharing networks. Plato was remarkably innovative for its time, featuring real-time chat, and multi-user graphical games. Burroughs Corporation introduced the B5000 in 1961 with the MCP, (Master Control Program) operating system. The B5000 was a stack machine designed to exclusively support high-level languages with no machine language or assembler, and indeed the MCP was the first OS to be written exclusively in a high-level language ESPOL, a dialect of ALGOL. MCP also introduced many other ground-breaking innovations, such as being the first commercial implementation of virtual memory. During development of the AS400, IBM made an approach to Burroughs to licence MCP to run on the AS400 hardware. This proposal was declined by Burroughs management to protect its existing hardware production. MCP is still in use today in the Unisys ClearPath/MCP line of computers.

UNIVAC, the first commercial computer manufacturer, produced a series of EXEC operating systems. Like all early main-frame systems, this was a batch-oriented system that managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and line printers. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the Real-Time Basic (RTB) system to support large-scale time sharing, also patterned after the Dartmouth BASIC system.

General Electric and MIT developed General Electric Comprehensive Operating Supervisor (GECOS), which introduced the concept of ringed security privilege levels. After acquisition by Honeywell it was renamed to General Comprehensive Operating System (GCOS).

Digital Equipment Corporation developed many operating systems for its various computer lines, including TOPS-10 and TOPS-20 time sharing systems for the 36-bit PDP-10 class systems. Prior to the widespread use of UNIX, TOPS-10 was a particularly popular system in universities, and in the early ARPANET community.

In the late 1960s through the late 1970s, several hardware capabilities evolved that allowed similar or ported software to run on more than one system. Early systems had utilized microprogramming to implement features on their systems in order to permit different underlying architecture to appear to be the same as others in a series. In fact most 360’s after the 360/40 (except the 360/165 and 360/168) were microprogrammed implementations. But soon other means of achieving application compatibility were proven to be more significant.

The enormous investment in software for these systems made…

DVD & VHS Magic ,

r other uses, see Decal (disambiguation).

A decal (pronounced /dikl, dikl, dkl/) or transfer is a plastic, cloth paper or ceramic substrate that has printed on it a pattern that can be moved to another surface upon contact, usually with the aid of heat or water. The word is short for “decalcomania.” The word Decalcomania is derived from the French word “decalquer,” and was coined by Simon Franois Ravenet about 1750. The “mania” was added during the Decal craze of the late 1800s.

Different variations of decals include: “water-slide” or “water-dip”; and vinyl “peel-and-stick”. A water-slide (or water-dip) decal is a type of decal that must first be dipped in water prior to its application. Upon contact with water, the glue is loosened and the decal can be removed from its backing. A vinyl “peel-and-stick” decal is a petroleum based decal that transfers upon peeling off the decal from its base.

Decals are commonly used on hot rod automobiles and plastic models. They are also used on guitars as a way of personalizing them.

Government agencies of all types also use decals on vehicles for identification. These decals are referred to as fleet markings and are required by law on all fire and law enforcement vehicles in the US. Most fleet markings are created from reflective vinyl with an adhesive backing that is applied in a peel-and-stick manner. Vinyl comes in large rolls that are fed through a plotter (cutter) or large-format printer/cutter. The designs are created in specialized computer software and sent to the machines via cable link for production. Once the design is cut into the vinyl, the excess vinyl on the sheet is removed in a process called “weeding”. Finally, a paper pre-mask is applied to the top of the vinyl design to allow easy application of multiple letters and shapes at one time.

See also

Look up decal in Wiktionary, the free dictionary , waterslide decal paper .

Bumper sticke , decal transfer paper .

lithography

Guitar Decal

References

^ TravelDecals.com, “About Decals”

External links

Industrial Transfers and the Art of Decalcomania

History of Decals

This printmaking-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

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VCI paper ,



In the United States

A grain of cocaine hydrochloride trapped in the forest-like structure of a single dollar bill

In a study reported in Forensic Science International, A.J. Jenkins, at the Office of the Cuyahoga County Coroner (Cleveland, OH), the author reports the analysis of ten randomly collected one-dollar bills from five cities, and tested for cocaine, heroin, 6-acetylmorphine (also called “6-AM”), morphine, codeine, methamphetamine, amphetamine and phencyclidine (PCP). Bills were then immersed in acetonitrile for two hours prior to extraction and subjected to Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. Results demonstrated that “92% of the bills were positive for cocaine with a mean amount of 28.75+/-139.07 micrograms per bill, a median of 1.37 g per bill, and a range of 0.01-922.72 g per bill. Heroin was detected in seven bills in amounts ranging from 0.03 to 168.5 g per bill: 6-AM and morphine were detected in three bills; methamphetamine and amphetamine in three and one bills, respectively, and PCP was detected in two bills in amounts of 0.78 and 1.87 g per bill. Codeine was not detected in any of the one-dollar bills analyzed”. The study confirmed that although paper currency was most often contaminated with cocaine, other drugs of abuse may also be detected in bills.

Another study, conducted at Argonne National Laboratory, found that four out of five dollar bills in Chicago suburbs contain traces of cocaine. Previous studies have found similar contamination rates in other cities. But the Argonne study is the first to demonstrate that if you handle contaminated bills, you won’t wind up with drugs on your hands. “It’s virtually impossible for cocaine to rub off,” Argonne chemist Jack Demirgian said. This estimate of contamination could be as high as 94%, according to Bill and Rich Sones of the Chicago Sun-Times.

This was confirmed by Ronald K. Siegel in his book, Intoxication: Life in Pursuit of Artificial Paradise, who noted the figure as well , food container paper .

It was uncovered in the Sacramento Bee that while the initial source of the contamination comes from money used in the Illegal drug trade in circulation, the U.S. Federal Reserve unwittingly spreads the substance to clean currency by mixing the bills together.The Journal of Analytical Toxicology confirms this assessment, noting that counting machines (in addition to simple proximity) are the agents of transfer , printing writing paper .

The legal application of this discovery means that cocaine is so prevalent on U.S. currency that reactions by drug-sniffing dogs is not immediately cause for arrest or confiscation of the banknotes, though this has been contested legally in a number of U.S. states as a standard of what constitutes ‘unusual’ levels of contamination remains to be achieved (see below).

In the United Kingdom

Forensic scientists have said that around 80% of all British banknotes contain traces of drugs. A 1999 study found even higher levels of contamination in the London area; of 500 notes tested, only four had no traces of cocaine. Most of the banknotes showed only low levels of contamination, suggesting they had merely been in contact with contaminated notes, but 4% of the notes in the study showed higher levels, which the researchers suggested was the result of either being handled by people under the influence of cocaine (which is excreted in skin oils), or by being used directly to snort the drug.

The levels of drugs found in banknotes can rise to sufficient levels to require them to be taken out of circulation, and over 15 million worth of notes are destroyed annually for this reason. The destruction is more often done as a precaution than because the money poses a serious health hazard.

Cocaine is the drug most commonly found on banknotes. Heroin and ecstasy are found less often, though the frequency of ecstasy contamination rose in the years leading up to 2002. Joe Reevy of Mass Spec Analytical, a company which analyses confiscated banknotes for the police, pointed out that heroin and ecstasy degrade more rapidly than cocaine, and that a single note which had been used to snort cocaine could subsequently contaminate many others when placed in a sorting machine, to explain the frequency of cocaine contamination.

Money recovered from police raids on the drugs trade can be heavily contaminated. In one raid in 2002, 465,000 was found which had been stored in a room where heroin was being prepared, and was so heavily contaminated that officers were advised not to touch it without protective equipment, while during Operation Uproar, an investigation into Colombian money laundering, $1 million in contaminated banknotes was destroyed after being seized.

Prior studies found that the level of contamination - ie, the concentration of the contamination - was different between those bills suspected to be used in the drug trade and those of proximity transfer levels. Subsequent tests have confirmed this determination, and serve as the basis for court cases against drug dealers, since the basic level of drug contamination remains fairly constant throughout the UK, despite factors that might immediately be thought to affect levels, like rural or urban environments, rich or poor or areas with high or low crime rates.

Hepatitis-C contamination

Contamination of paper money is not limited to simply that of cocaine and other illicit drugs. Health officials in the UK warn that a silent Hepatitis-C epidemic could be brewing. Drug users with hepatitis who share with others the rolled paper note (or straw) used to snort cocaine can facilitate the transfer of the disease to thousands. As drug users are frequently impaired, they can easily fail to notice small traces of blood on these rolled banknotes. This is considered to be of particular concern, as eight out of ten carriers are unaware of their status (as hepatitis can lie dormant for decades), and have little in the way of access to regular healthcare. This higher risk for contracting hepatitis-C has also been noted by the American National Institutes of Health (NIH). Without treatment, hepatitis-C can lead to chronic liver disease.

The British Department of Health estimates that there are over 200,000 people infected with hepatitis C in Britain, but the number might be much higher. Charles Gore, the chief executive of the Hepatitis C Trust, said: “Estimates show that around 5,000 new cases of hepatitis C are diagnosed every year - but they are mainly through chance. Because so many are undiagnosed we can’t tell what kind of problem we are looking at. When 5,000 banknotes were tested in London in 2000, 99% of them had traces of cocaine on them. That tells us that there is potentially a massive problem in diagnosis and people’s awareness of how easily hepatitis C can be contracted.”

Professor Graham Foster, of St Mary’s Hospital, London, said: “Sharing banknotes or straws is a significant risk factor that people need to be more aware of. Although the risk of contracting hepatitis C through snorting is lower than through sharing a needle, it is still there.”

Eurozone

Similar contaminations have been found on euro banknotes from Ireland, Spain, and Germany. Additionally, Germany had noted the unusual phenomenon of German euros cracking and disintegrating after being withdrawn from ATMs, which was later explained as being caused by the sulfates used in the production of methamphetamine mixing with human sweat to form sulfuric acid, which breaks down the paper the euros are printed on. Most of the crystal methamphetamine present in Germany comes from Eastern Europe, and has a high level of sulfates.

Elsewhere in the world

The longevity of most modern currency has also given rise to various fallacies regarding the transmission of bacteriological agents with paper banknotes. SARS cannot be spread via banknote, any more than AIDS can - though it bears noting that China concern in early 2003 that the deadly SARS virus could be spread by banknotes caused that country to automatically sequester surrendered bills for 24 hours (the presumed lifespan of the virus) before releasing them back into circulation.

The levels of contamination and the overall “dirtyness” of bills led Australia to introduce a plastic currency in 1988. In addition to not providing the crystalline structures of illicit drugs a ‘foothold’ as they do with paper, the rubbery-feeling banknotes are also difficult for counterfeiters to reproduce, and are four times more durable than paper notes. Since introducing the polymeric currency, Australia now prints the same type of currency for almost two dozen other countries, including Israel, Malaysia, Mexico and Romania.

References

^ “Drug Money”. Snopes. http://www.snopes.com/business/money/cocaine.asp. Retrieved on 2008-07-23.

^ Abrahamson, Alan (13 November 1994). “”Prevalence of Drug-Tainted Money Voids Case Law: Court cites findings that more than 75% of currency in L.A. bears traces of cocaine or other illegal substances”". Los Angeles Times. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/59564073.html?dids=59564073:59564073&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Nov+13%2C+1994&author=ALAN+ABRAHAMSON&pub=Los+Angeles+Times+(pre-1997+Fulltext)&edition=&startpage=1&desc=Prevalence+of+Drug-Tainted+Money+Voids+Case+Law%3A+Court+cites+findings+that+more+than+75%25+of+currency+in+L.A.+bears+traces+of+cocaine+or+other+illegal+substances.. Retrieved on 2008-07-23.

^ Price, Debbie M. (6 May 1990). “”Use of Drug-Sniffing Dogs Challenged;ACLU Backs Complaint by Men Whose Pocket Cash Was Seized”". The Washington Post….

Paper / Aluminum / Plastic Material for Packing ,



Effectiveness

This hygienic behavior has been shown to cut the number of child deaths from diarrhea (the second leading cause of child deaths) by almost half and from pneumonia (the leading cause of child deaths) by one-quarter. There are five critical times in washing hands with soap and/or using of a hand antiseptic related to fecal-oral transmission: after using a bathroom (private or public), after changing a diaper, before feeding a child, before eating and before preparing food or handling raw meat, fish, or poultry, or any other situation leading to potential contamination and see below. To reduce the spread of germs, it is also better to wash the hands and/or use a hand antiseptic before and after tending to a sick person. If your hands are not visibly dirty or soiled, washing one’s hands with a good hand antiseptic is the most effective overall way to prevent the spread of infectious disease. If your hands are dirty or soiled, washing your hands with soap and water followed by a good hand antiseptic is the most effective overall way to prevent the spread of infectious disease.

The Institue for Good Medicine at the Pennsylvania Medical Society recommends that you wash your hands and/or use a good hand antiseptic:

After touching an animal or items associated with animals

After blowing your nos , discount wall paper .

After coughing or sneezing into your hand , iron on transfer paper .

Before and after treating cuts and wounds

Before and after touching a sick or injured person

After contact with blood or body fluid

After handling garbage

Before inserting or removing contact lenses

And see above

Substances used

Soap and detergents

The application of water alone is inefficient for cleaning skin because water is often unable to remove fats, oils, and proteins, which are components of organic soil. To remove pathogens, two gallon of water per minute is needed in washing hands using flowing water.

Therefore, removal of microorganisms from skin requires the addition of soaps or detergents to water. Currently most products sold as “soaps” are actually detergents, so that is the substance most used to wash hands.

Water temperature

Hot water that is comfortable for washing hands is not hot enough to kill bacteria. However, warm, soapy water is more effective than cold, soapy water at removing the natural oils on your hands which hold soils and bacteria.

Solid soap

Solid soap, because of its reusable nature, may hold bacteria acquired from previous uses, so it’s important to wash the soap itself before and after use.

Hand washing with contaminated soap could colonize the hands with Gram-negative bacteria, which results in an increase in bacterial counts on the skin.

Hand washing with soap

Schoolchildren washing their hands before eating lunch.

Antibacterial soap

Antibacterial soaps have been heavily promoted to a health-conscious public. To date, there is no evidence that using recommended antiseptics or disinfectants selects for antibiotic-resistant organisms in nature. However, antibacterial soaps contain common antibacterial agents such as Triclosan, which has an extensive list of resistant strains of organisms. So, even if antibacterial soaps aren’t selected for antibiotic resistant strains, they might not be as effective as they are marketed to be.

A comprehensive analysis from the University of Oregon School of Public Health indicated that plain soaps are as effective as consumer-grade anti-bacterial soaps containing triclosan in preventing illness and removing bacteria from the hands.

Hand antiseptic

A hand sanitizer or hand antiseptic is a non-water-based hand hygiene agent. In the late 1990s and early part of the 21st century, Alcohol rub non-water-based hand hygiene agents (also known as alcohol-based hand rubs, antiseptic hand rubs, or hand sanitizers) began to gain popularity. Most are based on isopropyl alcohol or ethanol formulated together with a thickening agent such as Carbomer into a gel, or a humectant such as glycerin into a liquid, or foam for ease of use and to decrease the drying effect of the alcohol.

Hand sanitizers containing a minimum of 60 to 95% alcohol are efficient germ killers. Alcohol rub sanitizers kill bacteria, multi-drug resistant bacteria (MRSA and VRE), tuberculosis, and viruses (including HIV, herpes, RSV, rhinovirus, vaccinia, influenza, and hepatitis) and fungus. Alcohol rub sanitizers containing 70% alcohol kill 3.5 log10 (99.9%) of the bacteria on hands 30 seconds after application and 4 to 5 log10 (99.99 to 99.999%) of the bacteria on hands 1 minute after application. Alcohol rub sanitizers can prevent the transfer of health-care associated pathogens (Gram-negative bacteria) better than soap and water.

The increasing use of these agents is based on their ease of use and rapid killing activity against micro-organisms.

However frequent use of alcohol-based formulations for hand sanitizers can cause dry skin unless emollients and/or skin moisturizers are added to the formula. The drying effect of alcohol can be reduced or eliminated by adding glycerin and/or other emollients to the formula. In clinical trials, alcohol based hand sanitizers containing emollients caused substantially less skin irritation and dryness than soaps or antimicrobial detergents. Allergic contact dermatitis, contact urticaria syndrome or hypersensitivity to alcohol or additives present in alcohol hand rubs rarely occurs. The lower tendency to induce irritant contact dermatitis also become an attraction as compared to soap and water hand washing.

Despite their effectiveness, the non-water agents do not clean hands of organic material, they simply disinfect them. However, disinfection does prevent transmission of infectious microorganisms. The commercial products of those include the brands of Aqium, Germ Warfare, Cuticura et cetera, GermOut and Rochon-Edouard et al. has provided a good review of those products.

The efficacy of alcohol-free hand sanitizers is heavily dependent on their ingredients and formulation. In the past, alcohol-free hand sanitizers tended to significantly under-perform alcohol or alcohol rubs as germ killers in clinical studies using standard protocols such as EN1500. More recently, advanced formulations have been developed, some of which have been shown to out-perform alcohol. An example of this is HandClens, with a patented SAB (Surfactant, Allantoin and Benzalkonium Chloride) formulation. A further aspect of efficacy that is sometimes overlooked is the effect of repeated use. The efficacy of alcohol as a hand disinfectant has been shown to decrease after repeated use, probably due to progressive adverse skin reactions, whereas the efficacy of an alcohol-free hand sanitizer based on Benzalkonium Chloride as its active ingredient has been shown to increase with repeated use. However, in a more recent study, the effectiveness of alcohol did not decrease after repeated use. This study also demonstrated that, unlike Benzalkonium Chloride, alcohol does not have persistent or cumulative antimicrobial activity after application. However, Purell has been previously shown to fail to meet the FDA 21 CFR 333.470 performance standards for health-care personnel antiseptic hand washes not just as a consequence of the decrease in effectiveness with repeated use, but also due to a lack of persistence in antimicrobial activity after application and the decrease in effectiveness with heavy soil loads. In the same study, HandClens was shown to meet and exceed the FDA performance standards.

Techniques

Soap and water

Conventionally, the use of soap and warm running water and the washing of all surfaces thoroughly, including under fingernails is seen as necessary. One should rub wet, soapy hands together outside the stream of running water for at least 20 seconds, before rinsing thoroughly and then drying with a clean or disposable towel. It has been shown[citation needed] that the use of a towel is a necessary part of effective contaminant removal, since the washing action separates the contaminants from the skin but does not completely flush them from the skin - removing the excess water (with the towel) also removes the suspended contaminants. After drying, a dry paper towel should be used to turn off the water (and open the exit door if one is in a restroom or other separate room). Moisturizing lotion is often recommended to keep the hands from drying out, should one’s hands require washing more than a few times per day.

Hand antiseptics

Enough hand antiseptic or alcohol rub must be used to thoroughly wet or cover both hands. The front and back of both hands and between and the ends of all fingers are rubbed for approximately 30 seconds until the liquid, foam or gel is dry. The use of a hand antiseptic or alcohol rub is much quicker and more effective than hand washing with soap and water. Hand antiseptics and alcohol rubs with moisturizers will also not dry out the skin on hands as much as soap and water.

Drying

Effective drying of the hands is an essential part if the hand hygiene process. But there is some debate over the most effective form of drying in washrooms. A growing volume of research suggests paper towels are much more hygienic than the electric hand dryers found in many washrooms.

In 2008, a study was conducted by the University of Westminster, London, to compare the levels of hygiene offered by paper towels, warm air hand dryers and the more modern jet-air hand dryers . The key findings were:

after washing and drying hands with the warm air dryer, the total number of bacteria was found to…

Hut Design Paper Weight ,



Varieties of PSA tape

Transparent office tape has a transparent film backing and an acrylic or synthetic rubber based adhesive. It is used for sealing envelopes, repairing torn paper products, general holding, etc.

‘Gaffer tape’ is normally based on a heavy fabric or plastic tape. The name derives from its use by gaffers in the entertainment industry among others, to hold down cables particularly to obviate or prevent tripping hazard and to stop damage to the cables and equipment.

Duct tape (sometimes referred to as “duck tape”) usually has a fabric backing and many uses, but is mainly used by people needing to tear tape by hand.

Box sealing tape (“Parcel tape”, UK) is a type of packaging tape which is a clear or opaque used for closing packages for shipment. It is usually two inch (48 mm) or three inch (72 mm) wide and is made of a polypropylene or polyester backing , christmas decoration paper .

Masking tape is used to cover areas that shouldn’t be painted. It usually has a paper backing and an adhesive designed to remove from surfaces (within a limited time) , gift bags paper .

Electrical tape is made of materials like vinyl that do not conduct electricity.

Surgical tape is an adhesive bandage used to hold a dressing on a wound.

Double-sided tape is adhesive on both sides of a backing

“Adhesive transfer tape” does not have a backing material and is sandwiched between two release layers of a double sided coated Release liner

Filament tape or “Strapping tape” has filaments (usually fiberglass) embedded into the adhesive for extra strength.

Spike tape is a thinner version of gaffer’s tape that is usually bright colored. Used to mark places of furniture or actors on a stage.

Hockey tape is a cloth tape used for grip on hockey and lacrosse sticks.

Tape glossary

Backing The primary component of tape upon which an adhesive is applied. Examples are cloth, paper, metal foil, film etc.

Conformability. Ability of a tape to make total contact with a rough or uneven surface.

Creped. Paper that has small “folds” to provide stretchability and conformability.

Double-coated, or two-sided tape. Pressure-sensitive tape with adhesive on both sides of the carrier material.

Gapping. Openings between layers of tape within a roll.

Release coating. A very thin coating applied to the impervious tape backing so as to allow the tape to be unwound at a controlled level.

Substrate The material which the PSA tape must adhere to

Tack. The sticky feel of the tape. It is the initial adhesion without rub-down.

Telescoping. A sideways sliding of the tape layers, one over the other, so that the roll looks like a funnel or telescope.

Unwind. The force to remove or unwind the tape from a roll.

PSA Tape Standards

The PSA industry is in the process of unifying the several standards presently in use. The most active organizations are:

ISO International Organization for Standardization - A European AFNOR committee is currently active in the definition of international standards; some of the most common test methods, such as Peel Adhesion, Static Shear Adhesion, Break Strength and Elongation are presently ISO standard

ASTM : ASTM International has several Technical Committees which write standards related to pressure sensitive tape.

PSTC : Pressure Sensitive Tape Council (tapes, North America)

TLMI : Tag & Label Manufacturers Institute (labels, North America)

AFERA : European Association for the Self Adhesive Tape Industry (tapes, Europe)

FINAT : Fderation INternationale des fabricants et transformateurs d’ Adhsifs et Thermocollants (labels, Europe)

JATMA : Japanese Adhesive Tapes Manufacturers Association

ASTM International has dozens of standards related to pressure sensitive tape. Some of them are for general types of PSA tape: Others are for specific types. For example ASTM D1000 has test methods for electrical tapes. There are ASTM specifications for many tapes including: D2301 for vinyl electrical tape, D5486 for box sealing tape, etc. Several of the ASTM test methods are coordinated with PSTC, other trade associations, and other international organizations.

Following are a few examples of some ASTM standards and counterparts:

ASTM Designation

ISO Designation

PSTC method

AFERA method

D3121 Standard Test Method for Tack of Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives by Rolling Ball

PSTC-6

D3330 Standard Test Method for Peel Adhesion of Pressure-Sensitive Tape

EN 1939

PSTC-101

AFERA 5001

D3654 Standard Test Methods for Shear Adhesion of Pressure-Sensitive Tapes

EN 1943

PSTC-107

AFERA 5012

D3759 Standard Test Method for Breaking Strength and Elongation of Pressure-Sensitive Tapes

EN 14410

PSTC-131

AFERA 5004

D3811 Standard Test Method for Unwind Force of Pressure-Sensitive Tapes

PSTC-8

D5750 Standard Guide for Width and Length of Pressure-Sensitive Tape

PSTC-71

Environmental considerations

Based on the solid waste hierarchy, the quantity and size of a tape should be minimized without reducing necessary functionality. Material content of a tape should comply with applicable regulations. Life cycle assessments of the tape and the item being taped are useful to identify and improve possible environmental effects. For example, there may be instances where the use of a PSA tape, compared to an alternative solution, improves the overall environmental impact: or vice-versa.

Reuse or recycling are sometimes aided by a tape being removable from a surface. If a tape remains on an item during recycling, a tape should be chosen which does not hinder the recyclability of the item. For example, when taped corrugated boxes are recycled, film backed box sealing tapes do not hinder box recycling: the PSA adhesive stays with the backing and is easily removed.

References

^ Jensen, Timothy (September 1992). “PSA Tapes Offer Environmental Advantages in Packaging”. Adhesives Age. http://www.pstc.org/technical_notes/environmental_advantages.php?subject=environmental. Retrieved on 2007-11-06.

^ Jensen, Timothy (April 1999). “Packaging Tapes:To Recycle of Not”. Adhesives and Sealants Council. http://www.pstc.org/technical_notes/to_recycle.php?subject=packaging. Retrieved on 2007-11-06.

See also

Pressure sensitive adhesive

Pressure sensitive paper

Rheology

Label

Tape dispenser

Further reading

“Pressure Sensitive Adhesive Tapes”, J. Johnston, PSTC, 2003, ISBN 0972800107

“Pressure Sensitive Formulation”, I. Benedek, VSP, 2000, ISBN 9067643300

External links

Pressure Sensitive Tape Council

The History of Pressure Sensitive Tape

Categories: Stationery | Adhesive tape | Adhesives | Packaging materials

Water Hyacinth Sofa Set-WAIS Wm ,



History

In 1973, the ISO Technical Committee 68 decided to develop codes for the representation of currencies and funds for use in any application of trade, commerce or banking. At the 17th session (February 1978) of the related UN/ECE Group of Experts agreed that the three-letter alphabetic codes for International Standard ISO 4217, “Codes for the representation of currencies and funds”, would be suitable for use in international trade.

Over time, new currencies are created and old currencies are discontinued. Frequently, these changes are due to new governments (through war or a new constitution), treaties between countries standardizing on a currency, or revaluation of the currency due to excessive inflation. As a result, the list of codes must be updated from time to time. The ISO 4217 maintenance agency (MA), SIX Interbank Clearing, is responsible for maintaining the list of codes.

Active codes

The following is a list of active codes of official ISO 4217 currency names , bag gift paper .

Cod , buy a4 paper .

Num

E

Currency

Locations using this currency

AED

784

2

United Arab Emirates dirham

United Arab Emirates

AFN

971

2

Afghani

Afghanistan

ALL

008

2

Lek

Albania

AMD

051

0

Armenian dram

Armenia

ANG

532

2

Netherlands Antillean guilder

Netherlands Antilles

AOA

973

1

Kwanza

Angola

ARS

032

2

Argentine peso

Argentina

AUD

036

2

Australian dollar

Australia, Australian Antarctic Territory, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Heard and McDonald Islands, Kiribati, Nauru, Norfolk Island, Tuvalu

AWG

533

2

Aruban guilder

Aruba

AZN

944

2

Azerbaijanian manat

Azerbaijan

BAM

977

2

Convertible marks

Bosnia and Herzegovina

BBD

052

2

Barbados dollar

Barbados

BDT

050

2

Bangladeshi taka

Bangladesh

BGN

975

2

Bulgarian lev

Bulgaria

BHD

048

3

Bahraini dinar

Bahrain

BIF

108

0

Burundian franc

Burundi

BMD

060

2

Bermudian dollar (customarily known as Bermuda dollar)

Bermuda

BND

096

2

Brunei dollar

Brunei, Singapore

BOB

068

2

Boliviano

Bolivia

BOV

984

2

Bolivian Mvdol (funds code)

Bolivia

BRL

986

2

Brazilian real

Brazil

BSD

044

2

Bahamian dollar

Bahamas

BTN

064

2

Ngultrum

Bhutan

BWP

072

2

Pula

Botswana

BYR

974

0

Belarussian ruble

Belarus

BZD

084

2

Belize dollar

Belize

CAD

124

2

Canadian dollar

Canada

CDF

976

2

Franc Congolais

Democratic Republic of Congo

CHE

947

2

WIR euro (complementary currency)

Switzerland

CHF

756

2

Swiss franc

Switzerland, Liechtenstein

CHW

948

2

WIR franc (complementary currency)

Switzerland

CLF

990

0

Unidad de Fomento (funds code)

Chile

CLP

152

0

Chilean peso

Chile

CNY

156

1

Chinese Yuan

China (Mainland)

COP

170

0

Colombian peso

Colombia

COU

970

2

Unidad de Valor Real

Colombia

CRC

188

2

Costa Rican colon

Costa Rica

CUC

931

2

Cuban convertible peso

Cuba

CUP

192

2

Cuban peso

Cuba

CVE

132

2

Cape Verde escudo

Cape Verde

CZK

203

2

Czech Koruna

Czech Republic

DJF

262

0

Djibouti franc

Djibouti

DKK

208

2

Danish krone

Denmark, Faroe Islands, Greenland

DOP

214

2

Dominican peso

Dominican Republic

DZD

012

2

Algerian dinar

Algeria

EEK

233

2

Kroon

Estonia

EGP

818

2

Egyptian pound

Egypt

ERN

232

2

Nakfa

Eritrea

ETB

230

2

Ethiopian birr

Ethiopia

EUR

978

2

euro

16 European Union countries, Andorra, Kosovo, Monaco, Montenegro, San Marino, Vatican; see eurozone

FJD

242

2

Fiji dollar

Fiji

FKP

238

2

Falkland Islands pound

Falkland Islands

GBP

826

2

Pound sterling

United Kingdom, Crown Dependencies (the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands), certain British Overseas Territories (South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, British Antarctic Territory and British Indian Ocean Territory)

GEL

981

2

Lari

Georgia

GHS

936

2

Cedi

Ghana

GIP

292

2

Gibraltar pound

Gibraltar

GMD

270

2

Dalasi

Gambia

GNF

324

0

Guinea franc

Guinea

GTQ

320

2

Quetzal

Guatemala

GYD

328

2

Guyana dollar

Guyana

HKD

344

1

Hong Kong dollar

Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

HNL

340

2

Lempira

Honduras

HRK

191

2

Croatian kuna

Croatia

HTG

332

2

Haiti gourde

Haiti

HUF

348

0

Forint

Hungary

IDR

360

0

Rupiah

Indonesia

ILS

376

2

Israeli new sheqel

Israel

INR

356

2

Indian rupee

Bhutan, India

IQD

368

0

Iraqi dinar

Iraq

IRR

364

0

Iranian rial

Iran

ISK

352

0

Iceland krona

Iceland

JMD

388

2

Jamaican dollar

Jamaica

JOD

400

3

Jordanian dinar

Jordan

JPY

392

0

Japanese yen

Japan

KES

404

2

Kenyan shilling

Kenya

KGS

417

2

Som

Kyrgyzstan

KHR

116

0

Riel

Cambodia

KMF

174

0

Comoro franc

Comoros

KPW

408

0

North Korean won

North Korea

KRW

410

0

South Korean won

South Korea

KWD

414

3

Kuwaiti dinar

Kuwait

KYD

136

2

Cayman Islands dollar

Cayman Islands

KZT

398

2

Tenge

Kazakhstan

LAK

418

0

Kip

Laos

LBP

422

0

Lebanese pound

Lebanon

LKR

144

2

Sri Lanka rupee

Sri Lanka

LRD

430

2

Liberian dollar

Liberia

LSL

426

2

Lesotho loti

Lesotho

LTL

440

2

Lithuanian litas

Lithuania

LVL

428

2

Latvian lats

Latvia

LYD

434

3

Libyan dinar

Libya

MAD

504

2

Moroccan dirham

Morocco, Western Sahara

MDL

498

2

Moldovan leu

Moldova

MGA

969

0.7

Malagasy ariary

Madagascar

MKD

807

2

Denar

Macedonia

MMK

104

0

Kyat

Myanmar

MNT

496

2

Tugrik

Mongolia

MOP

446

1

Pataca

Macau Special Administrative Region

MRO

478

0.7

Ouguiya

Mauritania

MUR

480

2

Mauritius rupee

Mauritius

MVR

462

2

Rufiyaa

Maldives

MWK

454

2

Kwacha

Malawi

MXN

484

2

Mexican peso

Mexico

MXV

979

2

Mexican Unidad de Inversion (UDI) (funds code)

Mexico

MYR

458

2

Malaysian ringgit

Malaysia

MZN

943

2

Metical

Mozambique

NAD

516

2

Namibian dollar

Namibia

NGN

566

2

Naira

Nigeria

NIO

558

2

Cordoba oro

Nicaragua

NOK

578

2

Norwegian krone

Norway, Bouvet Island, Queen Maud Land, Peter I Island

NPR

524

2

Nepalese rupee

Nepal

NZD

554

2

New Zealand dollar

Cook Islands, New Zealand, Niue, Pitcairn, Tokelau

OMR

512

3

Rial Omani

Oman

PAB

590

2

Balboa

Panama

PEN

604

2

Nuevo sol

Peru

PGK

598

2

Kina

Papua New Guinea

PHP

608

2

Philippine peso

Philippines

PKR

586

2

Pakistan rupee

Pakistan

PLN

985

2

Zoty

Poland

PYG

600

0

Guarani

Paraguay

QAR

634

2

Qatari rial

Qatar

RON

946

2

Romanian new leu

Romania

RSD

941

2

Serbian dinar

Serbia

RUB

643

2

Russian rouble

Russia, Abkhazia, South Ossetia

RWF

646

0

Rwanda franc

Rwanda

SAR

682

2

Saudi riyal

Saudi Arabia

SBD

090

2

Solomon Islands dollar

…